english- 第6部分

Penis　Envy
In　Psychoanalytic　Thought；　the　desire　of　girls　to　posses　a　penis　and　therefore　have　the　power　that　being　male　represents。

Percentile　Rank
Percentage　of　scores　falling　at　or　below　a　specific　score。　A　percentile　rank　of　95　means　that　95％　of　all　of　the　scores　fall　at　or　below　this　point。　In　other　words；　the　score　is　as　good　as　or　better　than　95％　of　the　scores。

Perception　
The　process　of　organizing　and　using　information　that　is　received　through　the　senses。　

Perceptual　Constancy
The　ability　to　perceive　objects　as　unchanged　despite　the　change　noticed　by　the　senses　（e。g。；　the　ability　to　understand　and　see　buildings　as　remaining　the　same　height　even　though　they　appear　larger　as　we　get　closer　to　them）。

Perfect　Correlation
A　correlation　of　either　＋1。0　or　…1。0。　A　perfect　correlation　is　extremely　rare　and　when　it　occurs　means　that　predicting　one　score　based　on　another　score　is　perfect　or　without　error。

Person　Centered　Therapy　
The　therapeutic　technique　based　on　humanistic　theory　which　is　non…directive　and　empathic。　

Personality　
The　stable　set　of　individual　characteristics　that　make　us　unique。　

Personality　Disorder　
A　maladaptive　and　stable　set　of　individual　characteristics　that　cluster　to　form　a　recognized　disorder。

Permissive　＇parents＇　
Parenting　style　consisting　of　very　few　rules　and　allowing　children　to　make　most　decisions　and　control　their　own　behavior。

Persuasion　
The　deliberate　attempt　to　influence　the　thoughts；　feelings　or　behaviors　of　another。　

Phallic　Personality　
Stemming　from　the　Phallic　stage；　a　child　who　bees　fixated　may　develop　a　personality　characterized　by　selfishness；　impulsivity；　and　a　lack　of　or　reduced　ability　to　feel　empathy。

Phallic　Stage
Freud's　third　stage　of　psychosexual　development　where　the　primary　sexual　focus　is　on　symbolism　of　the　genitals。

Phi　Correlation
A　correlational　technique　used　when　both　variables　are　binary　（Example　true/false；　yes/no；　or　on/off）

Phi　Phenomenon
The　perception　of　motion　based　on　two　or　more　stationary　objects　（e。g。；　the　perception　of　chaser　lights　brought　about　by　different　lights　blinking　at　different　times）。

Phobia　
An　intense　fear　of　a　specific　object　or　situation。　Most　of　us　consider　ourselves　to　have　phobias；　but　to　be　diagnosable；　the　fear　must　significantly　restrict　our　way　of　life。

Placebo　
A　treatment　condition　used　to　control　for　the　placebo　effect　where　the　treatment　has　no　real　effect　on　its　own。　

Placebo　Effect　
The　phenomenon　in　research　where　the　subject’s　beliefs　about　the　oute　can　significantly　effect　the　oute　without　any　other　intervention。　

Plasticity　
The　ability　of　the　brain；　especially　in　our　younger　years　to　pensate　for　damage。　

Platykurtic
A　curve　or　distribution　of　scores　that　has　a　lot　of　variance

Pleasure　Principle　
Freud’s　theory　regarding　the　id’s　desire　to　maximize　pleasure　and　minimize　pain　in　order　to　achieve　immediate　gratification。　

Point　Biserial　Correlation
A　correlational　technique　used　when　one　variable　is　numeric　and　the　other　is　binary　（Example　age　and　sex　or　ine　and　true/false）

Point　Estimation
Estimating　the　population　statistic　based　on　a　single　sample　statistic。

Pons
Part　of　the　brain　that　plays　a　role　in　the　regulation　of　states　of　arousal；　including　sleep　and　dreaming。

Population　
The　entire　group　to　which　research　is　hoping　to　generalize　（e。g。；　males；　adults；　U。S。　citizens）。　

Population　Mean
The　true　mean　of　the　entire　population　often　estimated　using　the　sample　mean。　Abbreviated　with　the　lowercase　Greek　letter　mu。　（m）

Population　Standard　Deviation
The　true　standard　deviation　of　the　population　often　estimated　by　using　the　sample　standard　deviation。　Often　abbreviated　with　the　lowercase　Greek　letter　sigma。　（s）

Positive　Correlation　
A　correlation　where　as　one　variable　increases；　the　other　also　increases；　or　as　one　decreases　so　does　the　other。　Both　variables　move　in　the　same　direction。

Positive　Reinforcement　
Something　positive　provided　after　a　response　in　order　to　increase　the　probability　of　that　response　occurring　in　the　future。　

Positive　Skew
A　curve　or　distribution　of　scores　that　has　extreme　scores　above　the　mean　that　are　atypical　of　the　majority　of　scores

Power
The　strength　or　the　data　to　find　a　difference　when　there　truly　is　a　difference。　Power　is　abbreviated　with　the　capital　Greek　letter　beta　（b）。

Predictive　Validity
A　measurements　ability　to　predict　scores　on　another　measurement　that　is　related　or　purports　to　measure　the　same　or　similar　construct

Prejudice　
Negative　beliefs；　attitudes；　or　feelings　about　a　person's　entire　character　based　on　only　one　characteristic。　This　belief　is　often　based　on　faulty　information。　

Preoperational　Stage
Piaget's　second　stage　of　cognitive　development　in　which　a　child　develops　objects　permanency　and　language。

Pretest…Posttest　Method
A　method　of　determining　the　amount　of　change　that　occurred　in　a　set　of　data　by　measuring　the　data　prior　to　treatment　and　then　after　treatment　and　paring　the　two　measurement　outes。

Primacy　Effect　
The　tendency　to　remember　the　first　bit　of　information　in　a　series　due　to　increased　rehearsal。　

Primary　Reinforcer
A　reinforcer　that　meets　our　basic　needs　such　as　food；　water；　sleep；　or　love。

Proactive　Interference
Interference　in　memory　due　to　prior　learning。

Probability　of　Error
The　likelihood　that　error　caused　the　results　of　data　analysis。　If　the　probability　of　error　is　greater　than　the　predetermined　acceptable　level　of　error　then　the　results　are　said　to　be　'not　significant。'　

Probability　Sample
Also　called　representative　samples；　a　probability　sample　consists　of　characteristics　that　are　close　to　the　population　that　they　represent。

Projection　
In　Psychoanalytic　Theory；　the　defense　mechanism　whereby　we　transfer　or　project　our　feelings　about　one　person　onto　another。　

Projective　Techniques　
A　generic　term　for　the　psychological　procedures　used　to　measure　personality　which　rely　on　ambiguous　stimuli。

Psychiatrist　
A　medical　doctor　with　training　in　mental　illness。　

Psychoanalysis　
Developed　by　Sigmund　Freud；　this　type　of　therapy　is　known　for　long　term　treatment；　typically　several　times　per　week；　where　the　unresolved　issues　from　the　individual's　childhood　are　analyzed　and　resolved。　These　issues　are　considered　to　be　primarily　unconscious　in　nature　and　are　kept　from　consciousness　through　a　plex　defense　system。

Psychoanalytic　Theory
Theory　developed　by　Freud　consisting　of　the　structural　model　of　personality；　topographical　model　of　personality；　defense　mechanisms；　drives；　and　the　psychosexual　stages　of　development。　The　primary　driving　force　behind　the　theory　is　the　id；　ego　and　superego　and　the　division　of　consciousness　into　the　conscious　mind；　the　pre/subconscious；　and　the　unconscious。

Psychodynamic　Therapy　
A　modern　adaptation　of　psychoanalytic　therapy　which　has　made　sometimes　minor　and　sometimes　major　changes　to　Freud's　original　theories。

Psychotherapy
The　treatment　of　mental　illness　or　related　issues　based　on　psychological　theory。

Psychology　
The　study　of　emotion；　cognition；　and　behavior；　and　their　interaction。

Psychosis　
Break　from　reality；　usually　identified　by　hallucinations；　delusions；　and/or　disorientation。

Psychotropic　Medication
Prescription　medication　used　primarily　to　treat　mental　illness。

Punishment　
The　adding　of　a　negative　stimulus　in　order　to　decrease　a　response　（e。g。；　spanking　a　child　to　decrease　negative　behavior）。　

Q

Quasi…Experimental　Research　
Any　research　study　that　uses　specific　experimental　methods　but　does　not　randomize　subjects　

R

R
Symbol　used　for　the　Pearson…product　moment　correlation　（correlation　coefficient）

Random　Assignment　
Assigning　subjects　to　experimental　groups　based　on　chance。　

Random　Sample　
A　group　of　subjects　representing　the　population　who　are　selected　through　chance。　

Range　
the　difference　between　the　highest　and　lowest　score　in　a　distribution　（often　1　is　added　to　the　result　when　puting　statistics　to　allow　for　the　0。5　on　either　end　lost　due　to　rounding）。

Rank…Ordered　Array
A　table　consisting　of　data　in　order　of　highest　to　lowest　or　lowest　to　highest　where　each　data　is　given　a　numbered　rank　depicting　it's　difference　from　the　highest　or　lowest　score

Ratio　Scale
Any　scale　of　measurement　possessing　magnitude；　equal　intervals；　and　an　absolute　zero　

Rational　Emotive　Therapy　
A　Cognitive　Therapy　based　on　Albert　Ellis'　theory　that　cognitions　control　our　emotions　and　behaviors；　therefore；　changing　the　way　we　think　about　things　will　affect　the　way　we　feel　and　the　way　we　behave。

Rationalization　
A　defense　mechanism　where　one　believes　or　states　an　acceptable　explanation　for　a　behavior　as　opposed　to　the　real　explanation。　

Raw　Data
The　initial　data　gathered　that　has　not　yet　been　graphed；　organized；　or　analyzed。

Reaction　Formation　
A　defense　mechanism　where　unacceptable　impulses　are　converted　to　their　opposite。　

Reality　Principle
According　the　Freud；　the　attempt　by　the　ego　to　satisfy　both　the　id　and　the　superego　while　still　considering　the　reality　of　the　situation。

Recency　Effect　
The　tendency　to　remember　the　last　bit　of　information　due　to　the　shorter　time　available　for　forgetting。　

Reconstruction　
Tendency