stone to the edifice； and； his task accomplished； disappears。 Eternity precedes us； eternity follows us： between two infinites； of what account is one poor mortal that the century should inquire about him？
＇1＇ In Greek； ｛GREEK e ncg ｝ examiner； a philosopher whose business is to seek the truth。
Disregard then； reader； my title and my character； and attend only to my arguments。 It is in accordance with universal consent that I undertake to correct universal error； from the OPINION of the human race I appeal to its FAITH。 Have the courage to follow me； and； if your will is untrammelled； if your conscience is free； if your mind can unite two propositions and deduce a third therefrom； my ideas will inevitably become yours。 In beginning by giving you my last word； it was my purpose to warn you； not to defy you； for I am certain that； if you read me； you will be compelled to assent。 The things of which I am to speak are so simple and clear that you will be astonished at not having perceived them before； and you will say： 〃I have neglected to think。〃 Others offer you the spectacle of genius wresting Nature's secrets from her； and unfolding before you her sublime messages； you will find here only a series of experiments upon JUSTICE and RIGHT a sort of verification of the weights and measures of your conscience。 The operations shall be conducted under your very eyes； and you shall weigh the result。
Nevertheless； I build no system。 I ask an end to privilege； the abolition of slavery； equality of rights； and the reign of law。 Justice； nothing else； that is the alpha and omega of my argument： to others I leave the business of governing the world。
One day I asked myself： Why is there so much sorrow and misery in society？ Must man always be wretched？ And not satisfied with the explanations given by the reformers；these attributing the general distress to governmental cowardice and incapacity； those to conspirators and emeutes； still others to ignorance and general corruption；and weary of the interminable quarrels of the tribune and the press； I sought to fathom the matter myself。 I have consulted the masters of science； I have read a hundred volumes of philosophy； law； political economy； and history： would to God that I had lived in a century in which so much reading had been useless！ I have made every effort to obtain exact information； comparing doctrines； replying to objections； continually constructing equations and reductions from arguments； and weighing thousands of syllogisms in the scales of the most rigorous logic。 In this laborious work； I have collected many interesting facts which I shall share with my friends and the public as soon as I have leisure。 But I must say that I recognized at once that we had never understood the meaning of these words； so common and yet so sacred： JUSTICE； EQUITY； LIBERTY； that concerning each of these principles our ideas have been utterly obscure； and； in fact； that this ignorance was the sole cause； both of the poverty that devours us； and of all the calamities that have ever afflicted the human race。
My mind was frightened by this strange result： I doubted my reason。 What！ said I； that which eye has not seen； nor ear heard； nor insight penetrated； you have discovered！ Wretch； mistake not the visions of your diseased brain for the truths of science！ Do you not know （great philosophers have said so） that in points of practical morality universal error is a contradiction？
I resolved then to test my arguments； and in entering upon this new labor I sought an answer to the following questions： Is it possible that humanity can have been so long and so universally mistaken in the application of moral principles？ How and why could it be mistaken？ How can its error； being universal； be capable of correction？
These questions； on the solution of which depended the certainty of my conclusions； offered no lengthy resistance to analysis。 It will be seen； in chapter V。 of this work； that in morals； as in all other branches of knowledge； the gravest errors are the dogmas of science； that； even in works of justice； to be mistaken is a privilege which ennobles man； and that whatever philosophical merit may attach to me is infinitely small。 To name a thing is easy： the difficulty is to discern it before its appearance。 In giving expression to the last stage of an idea； an idea which permeates all minds； which to…morrow will be proclaimed by another if I fail to announce it to…day；I can claim no merit save that of priority of utterance。 Do we eulogize the man who first perceives the dawn？
Yes： all men believe and repeat that equality of conditions is identical with equality of rights； that PROPERTY and ROBBERY are synonymous terms； that every social advantage accorded； or rather usurped； in the name of superior talent or service； is iniquity and extortion。 All men in their hearts； I say； bear witness to these truths； they need only to be made to understand it。
Before entering directly upon the question before me； I must say a word of the road that I shall traverse。 When Pascal approached a geometrical problem； he invented a method of solution； to solve a problem in philosophy a method is equally necessary。 Well； by how much do the problems of which philosophy treats surpass in the gravity of their results those discussed by geometry！ How much more imperatively； then； do they demand for their solution a profound and rigorous analysis！
It is a fact placed for ever beyond doubt； say the modern psychologists； that every perception received by the mind is determined by certain general laws which govern the mind； is moulded； so to speak； in certain types pre…existing in our understanding； and which constitutes its original condition。 Hence； say they； if the mind has no innate IDEAS； it has at least innate FORMS。 Thus； for example； every phenomenon is of necessity conceived by us as happening in TIME and SPACE； that compels us to infer a CAUSE of its occurrence； every thing which exists implies the ideas of SUBSTANCE； MODE； RELATION； NUMBER； &C。； in a word； we form no idea which is not related to some one of the general principles of reason； independent of which nothing exists。
These axioms of the understanding； add the psychologists； these fundamental types； by which all our judgments and ideas are inevitably shaped； and which our sensations serve only to illuminate； are known in the schools as CATEGORIES。 Their primordial existence in the mind is to…day demonstrated； they need only to be systematized and catalogued。 Aristotle recognized ten； Kant increased the number to fifteen； M。 Cousin has reduced it to three； to two； to one； and the indisputable glory of this professor will be due to the fact that； if he has not discovered the true theory of categories； he has； at least； seen more clearly than any one else the vast importance of this question；the greatest and perhaps the only one with which metaphysics has to deal。
I confess that I disbelieve in the innateness； not only of IDEAS； but also of FORMS or LAWS of our understanding； and I hold the metaphysics of Reid and Kant to be still farther removed from the truth than that of Aristotle。 However； as I do not wish to enter here into a discussion of the mind； a task which would demand much labor and be of no interest to the public； I shall admit the hypothesis that our most general and most necessary ideassuch as time； space； substance； and cause exist originally in the mind； or； at least； are derived immediately from its constitution。
But it is a psychological fact none the less true； and one to which the philosophers have paid too little attention； that habit； like a second nature； has the power of fixing in the mind new categorical forms derived from the appearances which impress us； and by them usually stripped of objective reality； but whose influence over our judgments is no less predetermining than that of the original categories。 Hence we reason by the ETERNAL and ABSOLUTE laws of our mind； and at the same time by the secondary rules； ordinarily faulty； which are suggested to us by imperfect observation。 This is the most fecund source of false prejudices； and the permanent and often invincible cause of a multitude of errors。 The bias resulting from these prejudices is so strong that often； even when we are fighting against a principle which our mind thinks false； which is repugnant to our reason； and which our conscience disapproves； we defend it without knowing it； we reason in accordance with it； and we obey it while attacking it。 Enclosed within a circle； our mind revolves about itself； until a new observation； creating within us new ideas； brings to view an external principle which delivers us from the phantom by which our imagination is possessed。
Thus； we know to…day that； by the laws of a universal magnetism whose cause is still unknown； two bodies （no obstacle intervening） tend to unite by an accelerated impelling force which we call GRAVITATION。 It is gravitation which causes unsupported bodies to fall to the ground； which gives them weight； and which fastens us to the earth on which we live。 Ignorance of this cause was the sole obstacle which prevented the ancients from b