what is property- 第60部分

Communismthe　first　expression　of　the　social　natureis　the　first　term　of　social　development；the　THESIS；　property；　the　reverse　of　communism；　is　the　second　term；the　ANTITHESIS。　　When　we　have　discovered　the　third　term；　the　SYNTHESIS；　we　shall　have　the　required　solution。　　Now；　this　synthesis　necessarily　results　from　the　correction　of　the　thesis　by　the　antithesis。　　Therefore　it　is　necessary；　by　a　final　examination　of　their　characteristics；　to　eliminate　those　features　which　are　hostile　to　sociability。　　The　union　of　the　two　remainders　will　give　us　the　true　form　of　human　association。


％　2。Characteristics　of　Communism　and　of　Property。


I。　I　ought　not　to　conceal　the　fact　that　property　and　communism　have　been　considered　always　the　only　possible　forms　of　society。　　This　deplorable　error　has　been　the　life　of　property。　　The　disadvantages　of　communism　are　so　obvious　that　its　critics　never　have　needed　to　employ　much　eloquence　to　thoroughly　disgust　men　with　it。　　The　irreparability　of　the　injustice　which　it　causes；　the　violence　which　it　does　to　attractions　and　repulsions；　the　yoke　of　iron　which　it　fastens　upon　the　will；　the　moral　torture　to　which　it　subjects　the　conscience；　the　debilitating　effect　which　it　has　upon　society；　and；　to　sum　it　all　up；　the　pious　and　stupid　uniformity　which　it　enforces　upon　the　free；　active；　reasoning；　unsubmissive　personality　of　man；　have　shocked　common　sense；　and　condemned　communism　by　an　irrevocable　decree。

The　authorities　and　examples　cited　in　its　favor　disprove　it。　　The　communistic　republic　of　Plato　involved　slavery；　that　of　Lycurgus　employed　Helots；　whose　duty　it　was　to　produce　for　their　masters；　thus　enabling　the　latter　to　devote　themselves　exclusively　to　athletic　sports　and　to　war。　　Even　J。　J。　Rousseauconfounding　communism　and　equalityhas　said　somewhere　that；　without　slavery；　he　did　not　think　equality　of　conditions　possible。　　The　communities　of　the　early　Church　did　not　last　the　first　century　out；　and　soon　degenerated　into　monasteries。　　In　those　of　the　Jesuits　of　Paraguay；　the　condition　of　the　blacks　is　said　by　all　travellers　to　be　as　miserable　as　that　of　slaves；　and　it　is　a　fact　that　the　good　Fathers　were　obliged　to　surround　themselves　with　ditches　and　walls　to　prevent　their　new　converts　from　escaping。　　The　followers　of　Baboeufguided　by　a　lofty　horror　of　property　rather　than　by　any　definite　beliefwere　ruined　by　exaggeration　of　their　principles；　the　St。　Simonians；　lumping　communism　and　inequality；　passed　away　like　a　masquerade。　　The　greatest　danger　to　which　society　is　exposed　to…day　is　that　of　another　shipwreck　on　this　rock。

Singularly　enough；　systematic　communismthe　deliberate　negation　of　propertyis　conceived　under　the　direct　influence　of　the　proprietary　prejudice；　and　property　is　the　basis　of　all　communistic　theories。

The　members　of　a　community；　it　is　true；　have　no　private　property；　but　the　community　is　proprietor；　and　proprietor　not　only　of　the　goods；　but　of　the　persons　and　wills。　　In　consequence　of　this　principle　of　absolute　property；　labor；　which　should　be　only　a　condition　imposed　upon　man　by　Nature；　becomes　in　all　communities　a　human　commandment；　and　therefore　odious。　　Passive　obedience；　irreconcilable　with　a　reflecting　will；　is　strictly　enforced。　　Fidelity　to　regulations；　which　are　always　defective；　however　wise　they　may　be　thought；　allows　of　no　complaint。　　Life；　talent；　and　all　the　human　faculties　are　the　property　of　the　State；　which　has　the　right　to　use　them　as　it　pleases　for　the　common　good。　　Private　associations　are　sternly　prohibited；　in　spite　of　the　likes　and　dislikes　of　different　natures；　because　to　tolerate　them　would　be　to　introduce　small　communities　within　the　large　one；　and　consequently　private　property；　the　strong　work　for　the　weak；　although　this　ought　to　be　left　to　benevolence；　and　not　enforced；　advised；　or　enjoined；　the　industrious　work　for　the　lazy；　although　this　is　unjust；　the　clever　work　for　the　foolish；　although　this　is　absurd；　and；　finally；　mancasting　aside　his　personality；　his　spontaneity；　his　genius；　and　his　affections　humbly　annihilates　himself　at　the　feet　of　the　majestic　and　inflexible　Commune！

Communism　is　inequality；　but　not　as　property　is。　　Property　is　the　exploitation　of　the　weak　by　the　strong。　　Communism　is　the　exploitation　of　the　strong　by　the　weak。　　In　property；　inequality　of　conditions　is　the　result　of　force；　under　whatever　name　it　be　disguised：　physical　and　mental　force；　force　of　events；　chance；　FORTUNE；　force　of　accumulated　property；　&c。　　In　communism；　inequality　springs　from　placing　mediocrity　on　a　level　with　excellence。　　This　damaging　equation　is　repellent　to　the　conscience；　and　causes　merit　to　complain；　for；　although　it　may　be　the　duty　of　the　strong　to　aid　the　weak；　they　prefer　to　do　it　out　of　generosity；they　never　will　endure　a　comparison。　　Give　them　equal　opportunities　of　labor；　and　equal　wages；　but　never　allow　their　jealousy　to　be　awakened　by　mutual　suspicion　of　unfaithfulness　in　the　performance　of　the　common　task。

Communism　is　oppression　and　slavery。　　Man　is　very　willing　to　obey　the　law　of　duty；　serve　his　country；　and　oblige　his　friends；　but　he　wishes　to　labor　when　he　pleases；　where　he　pleases；　and　as　much　as　he　pleases。　　He　wishes　to　dispose　of　his　own　time；　to　be　governed　only　by　necessity；　to　choose　his　friendships；　his　recreation；　and　his　discipline；　to　act　from　judgment；　not　by　command；　to　sacrifice　himself　through　selfishness；　not　through　servile　obligation。　　Communism　is　essentially　opposed　to　the　free　exercise　of　our　faculties；　to　our　noblest　desires；　to　our　deepest　feelings。　　Any　plan　which　could　be　devised　for　reconciling　it　with　the　demands　of　the　individual　reason　and　will　would　end　only　in　changing　the　thing　while　preserving　the　name。　　Now；　if　we　are　honest　truth…seekers；　we　shall　avoid　disputes　about　words。

Thus；　communism　violates　the　sovereignty　of　the　conscience；　and　equality：　the　first；　by　restricting　spontaneity　of　mind　and　heart；　and　freedom　of　thought　and　action；　the　second；　by　placing　labor　and　laziness；　skill　and　stupidity；　and　even　vice　and　virtue　on　an　equality　in　point　of　comfort。　　For　the　rest；　if　property　is　impossible　on　account　of　the　desire　to　accumulate；　communism　would　soon　become　so　through　the　desire　to　shirk。

II。　Property；　in　its　turn；　violates　equality　by　the　rights　of　exclusion　and　increase；　and　freedom　by　despotism。　　The　former　effect　of　property　having　been　sufficiently　developed　in　the　last　three　chapters；　I　will　content　myself　here　with　establishing　by　a　final　comparison；　its　perfect　identity　with　robbery。

The　Latin　words　for　robber　are　_fur_　and　_latro；_　the　former　taken　from　the　Greek　｛GREEK　m　　｝；　from　｛GREEK　m　　　｝；　Latin　_fero_；　I　carry　away；　the　latter　from　｛GREEK　　‘i　　｝；　I　play　the　part　of　a　brigand；　which　is　derived　from　｛GREEK　　　i　｝；　Latin　_lateo_；　I　conceal　myself。　　The　Greeks　have　also　｛GREEK　　　ncg　　｝；　from　｛GREEK　　　ncg　｝；　I　filch；　whose　radical　consonants　are　the　same　as　those　of　｛GREEK　　‘　　cg　｝；　I　cover；　I　conceal。　　Thus；　in　these　languages；　the　idea　of　a　robber　is　that　of　a　man　who　conceals；　carries　away；　or　diverts；　in　any　manner　whatever；　a　thing　which　does　not　belong　to　him。

The　Hebrews　expressed　the　same　idea　by　the　word　_gannab_；　robber；from　the　verb　_ganab_；　which　means　to　put　away；　to　turn　aside：　_lo　thi…gnob　（Decalogue：　Eighth　Commandment_）；　thou　shalt　not　steal；that　is；　thou　shalt　not　hold　back；　thou　shalt　not　put　away　any　thing　for　thyself。　　That　is　the　act　of　a　man　who；　on　entering　into　a　society　into　which　he　agrees　to　bring　all　that　he　has；　secretly　reserves　a　portion；　as　did　the　celebrated　disciple　Ananias。

The　etymology　of　the　French　verb　_voler_　is　still　more　significant。　　_Voler_；　or　_faire　la　vole_　（from　the　Latin　_vola_；　palm　of　the　hand）；　means　to　take　all　the　tricks　in　a　game　of　ombre；　so　that　_le　voleur_；　the　robber；　is　the　capitalist　who　takes　all；　who　gets　the　lion's　share。　　Probably　this　verb　_voler_　had　its　origin　in　the　professional　slang　of　thieves；　whence　it　has　passed　into　common　use；　and；　consequently　into　the　phraseology　of　the　law。

Robbery　is　committed　in　a　variety　of　ways；　which　have　been　very　cleverly　distinguished　and　classified　by　legislators　according　to　their　heinousness　or　merit；　to　the　end　that　some　robbers　may　be　honored；　while　others　are　punished。

We　rob；1。　By　murder　on　the　highway；　2。　Alone；　or　in　a　band；　3。　By　breaking　into　buildings；　or　scaling　walls；　4。　By　abstraction；　5。　By　fraudulent　bankruptcy；　6。　By　forgery　of　the　handwriting　of　public　officials　or　private　individuals；　7。　By　manufacture　of　counterfeit　money。

This　species　includes　all　robbers　who　practise　their　profession　with　no　other　aid　than　force　and　open　fraud。　　Bandits；　brigands；　pirates；　rovers　by　land　and　sea；these　names　were　gloried　in　by　the　ancient　heroes；　who　thought　their　profession　as　noble　as　it　was　lucrative。　　Nimrod；　Theseus；　Jason　and　his　Argonauts；　Jephthah；　David；　Cacus；　Romulus；　Clovis　and　all　his　Merovingian　descendants；　Robert　Guiscard；　Tancred　de　Hauteville；　Bohemond；　and　most　of　the　Norman　heroes；　were　brigands　and　robbers。　　The　heroic　character　of　the　robber　is　expressed　in　this　line　from　Horace；　in　reference　to　Achilles；

　　　　　　　　　_〃Jura　neget　sibi　nata；　nihil　non　arroget　armis_；〃＇1＇　and　by　this　sentence　from　the　dying　words　of　Jacob　（Gen。　xlviii。）；　w