what is property- 第78部分

How　many　small　proprietors　and　manufacturers　have　not　been　ruined　by　large　ones　through　chicanery；　law…suits；　and　competition？　　Strategy；　violence；　and　usury；such　are　the　proprietor's　methods　of　plundering　the　laborer。

Thus　we　see　property；　at　all　ages　and　in　all　its　forms；　oscillating　by　virtue　of　its　principle　between　two　opposite　terms；extreme　division　and　extreme　accumulation。

Property；　at　its　first　term；　is　almost　null。　　Reduced　to　personal　exploitation；　it　is　property　only　potentially。　　At　its　second　term；　it　exists　in　its　perfection；　then　it　is　truly　property。

When　property　is　widely　distributed；　society　thrives；　progresses；　grows；　and　rises　quickly　to　the　zenith　of　its　power。　　Thus；　the　Jews；　after　leaving　Babylon　with　Esdras　and　Nehemiah；　soon　became　richer　and　more　powerful　than　they　had　been　under　their　kings。　　Sparta　was　in　a　strong　and　prosperous　condition　during　the　two　or　three　centuries　which　followed　the　death　of　Lycurgus。　　The　best　days　of　Athens　were　those　of　the　Persian　war；　Rome；　whose　inhabitants　were　divided　from　the　beginning　into　two　classes；　the　exploiters　and　the　exploited；knew　no　such　thing　as　peace。

When　property　is　concentrated；　society；　abusing　itself；　polluted；　so　to　speak；　grows　corrupt；　wears　itself　outhow　shall　I　express　this　horrible　idea？plunges　into　long…continued　and　fatal　luxury。

When　feudalism　was　established；　society　had　to　die　of　the　same　disease　which　killed　it　under　the　Caesars；I　mean　accumulated　property。　　But　humanity；　created　for　an　immortal　destiny；　is　deathless；　the　revolutions　which　disturb　it　are　purifying　crises；　invariably　followed　by　more　vigorous　health。　　In　the　fifth　century；　the　invasion　of　the　Barbarians　partially　restored　the　world　to　a　state　of　natural　equality。　　In　the　twelfth　century；　a　new　spirit　pervading　all　society　gave　the　slave　his　rights；　and　through　justice　breathed　new　life　into　the　heart　of　nations。　　It　has　been　said；　and　often　repeated；　that　Christianity　regenerated　the　world。　　That　is　true；　but　it　seems　to　me　that　there　is　a　mistake　in　the　date。　　Christianity　had　no　influence　upon　Roman　society；　when　the　Barbarians　came；　that　society　had　disappeared。　　For　such　is　God's　curse　upon　property；　every　political　organization　based　upon　the　exploitation　of　man　。　　shall　perish：　slave…labor　is　death　to　the　race　of　tyrants。　　The　patrician　families　became　extinct；　as　the　feudal　families　did；　and　as　all　aristocracies　must。

It　was　in　the　middle　ages；　when　a　reactionary　movement　was　beginning　to　secretly　undermine　accumulated　property；　that　the　influence　of　Christianity　was　first　exercised　to　its　full　extent。

The　destruction　of　feudalism；　the　conversion　of　the　serf　into　the　commoner；　the　emancipation　of　the　communes；　and　the　admission　of　the　Third　Estate　to　political　power；　were　deeds　accomplished　by　Christianity　exclusively。　　I　say　Christianity；　not　ecclesiasticism；　for　the　priests　and　bishops　were　themselves　large　proprietors；　and　as　such　often　persecuted　the　villeins。　　Without　the　Christianity　of　the　middle　ages；　the　existence　of　modern　society　could　not　be　explained；　and　would　not　be　possible。

The　truth　of　this　assertion　is　shown　by　the　very　facts　which　M。　Laboulaye　quotes；　although　this　author　inclines　to　the　opposite　opinion。＇1＇

＇1＇　　M。　Guizot　denies　that　Christianity　alone　is　entitled　to　the　glory　of　the　abolition　of　slavery。　　〃To　this　end；〃　he　says；　〃many　causes　were　necessary；the　evolution　of　other　ideas　and　other　principles　of　civilization。〃　　So　general　an　assertion　cannot　be　refuted。　　Some　of　these　ideas　and　causes　should　have　been　pointed　out；　that　we　might　judge　whether　their　source　was　not　wholly　Christian；　or　whether　at　least　the　Christian　spirit　had　not　penetrated　and　thus　fructified　them。　　Most　of　the　emancipation　charters　begin　with　these　words：　　〃For　the　love　of　God　and　the　salvation　of　my　soul。〃

Now；　we　did　not　commence　to　love　God　and　to　think　of　our　salvation　until　after　the　promulgation　of　the　Gospel。




1。　Slavery　among　the　Romans。〃The　Roman　slave　was；　in　the　eyes　of　the　law；　only　a　thing；no　more　than　an　ox　or　a　horse。　　He　had　neither　property；　family；　nor　personality；　he　was　defenceless　against　his　master's　cruelty；　folly；　or　cupidity。　　‘Sell　your　oxen　that　are　past　use；'　said　Cato；　‘sell　your　calves；　your　lambs；　your　wool；　your　hides；　your　old　ploughs；　your　old　iron；　your　old　slave；　and　your　sick　slave；　and　all　that　is　of　no　use　to　you。'　　When　no　market　could　be　found　for　the　slaves　that　were　worn　out　by　sickness　or　old　age；　they　were　abandoned　to　starvation。　　Claudius　was　the　first　defender　of　this　shameful　practice。〃


〃Discharge　your　old　workman；〃　says　the　economist　of　the　proprietary　school；　〃turn　off　that　sick　domestic；　that　toothless　and　worn…out　servant。　　Put　away　the　unserviceable　beauty；　to　the　hospital　with　the　useless　mouths！〃


〃The　condition　of　these　wretched　beings　improved　but　little　under　the　emperors；　and　the　best　that　can　be　said　of　the　goodness　of　Antoninus　is　that　he　prohibited　intolerable　cruelty；　as　an　ABUSE　OF　PROPERTY。　_Expedit　enim　reipublicae　ne　quis　re　re　sua　male　utatur_；　says　Gaius。

〃As　soon　as　the　Church　met　in　council；　it　launched　an　anathema　against　the　masters　who　had　exercised　over　their　slaves　this　terrible　right　of　life　and　death。　　Were　not　the　slaves；　thanks　to　the　right　of　sanctuary　and　to　their　poverty；　the　dearest　proteges　of　religion？　　Constantine；　who　embodied　in　the　laws　the　grand　ideas　of　Christianity；　valued　the　life　of　a　slave　as　highly　as　that　of　a　freeman；　and　declared　the　master；　who　had　intentionally　brought　death　upon　his　slave；　guilty　of　murder。　　Between　this　law　and　that　of　Antoninus　there　is　a　complete　revolution　in　moral　ideas：　the　slave　was　a　thing；　religion　has　made　him　a　man。〃

Note　the　last　words：　　〃Between　the　law　of　the　Gospel　and　that　of　Antoninus　there　is　a　complete　revolution　in　moral　ideas：　the　slave　was　a　thing；　religion　has　made　him　a　man。〃　　The　moral　revolution　which　transformed　the　slave　into　a　citizen　was　effected；　then；　by　Christianity　before　the　Barbarians　set　foot　upon　the　soil　of　the　empire。　　We　have　only　to　trace　the　progress　of　this　MORAL　revolution　in　the　PERSONNEL　of　society。　　〃But；〃　M。　Laboulaye　rightly　says；　〃it　did　not　change　the　condition　of　men　in　a　moment；　any　more　than　that　of　things；　between　slavery　and　liberty　there　was　an　abyss　which　could　not　be　filled　in　a　day；　the　transitional　step　was　servitude。〃

Now；　what　was　servitude？　　In　what　did　it　differ　from　Roman　slavery；　and　whence　came　this　difference？　　Let　the　same　author　answer。


2。　Of　servitude。〃I　see；　in　the　lord's　manor；　slaves　charged　with　domestic　duties。　　Some　are　employed　in　the　personal　service　of　the　master；　others　are　charged　with　household　cares。　　The　women　spin　the　wool；　the　men　grind　the　grain；　make　the　bread；　or　practise；　in　the　interest　of　the　seignior；　what　little　they　know　of　the　industrial　arts。　　The　master　punishes　them　when　he　chooses；　kills　them　with　impunity；　and　sells　them　and　theirs　like　so　many　cattle。　　The　slave　has　no　personality；　and　consequently　no　_wehrgeld_＇1＇　peculiar　to　himself：　he　is　a　thing。　　The　_wehrgeld_　belongs　to　the　master　as　a　compensation　for　the　loss　of　his　property。　　Whether　the　slave　is　killed　or　stolen；　the　indemnity　does　not　change；　for　the　injury　is　the　same；　but　the　indemnity　increases　or　diminishes　according　to　the　value　of　the　serf。　　In　all　these　particulars　Germanic　slavery　and　Roman　servitude　are　alike。〃

＇1＇　　_Weregild_；the　fine　paid　for　the　murder　of　a　man。　　So　much　for　a　count；　so　much　for　a　baron；　so　much　for　a　freeman；　so　much　for　a　priest；　for　a　slave；　nothing。　　His　value　was　restored　to　the　proprietor。




This　similarity　is　worthy　of　notice。　　Slavery　is　always　the　same；　whether　in　a　Roman　villa　or　on　a　Barbarian　farm。　　The　man；　like　the　ox　and　the　ass；　is　a　part　of　the　live…stock；　a　price　is　set　upon　his　head；　he　is　a　tool　without　a　conscience；　a　chattel　without　personality；　an　impeccable；　irresponsible　being；　who　has　neither　rights　nor　duties。


Why　did　his　condition　improve？


〃In　good　season　。　。　。〃　＇when　？＇　〃the　serf　began　to　be　regarded　as　a　man；　and；　as　such；　the　law　of　the　Visigoths；　under　the　influence　of　Christian　ideas；　punished　with　fine　or　banishment　any　one　who　maimed　or　killed　him。〃


Always　Christianity；　always　religion；　though　we　should　like　to　speak　of　the　laws　only。　　Did　the　philanthropy　of　the　Visigoths　make　its　first　appearance　before　or　after　the　preaching　of　the　Gospel？　　This　point　must　be　cleared　up。


〃After　the　conquest；　the　serfs　were　scattered　over　the　large　estates　of　the　Barbarians；　each　having　his　house；　his　lot；　and　his　peculium；　in　return　for　which　he　paid　rent　and　performed　service。　　They　were　rarely　separated　from　their　homes　when　their　land　was　sold；　they　and　all　that　they　had　became　the　property　of　the　purchaser。　　The　law　favored　this　realization　of　the　serf；　in　not　allowing　him　to　be　sold　out　of　the　country。〃


What　inspired　this　law；　destructive　not　only　of　slavery；　but　of　property　itself？　　For；　if　the　master　cannot　drive　from　his　domain　the　slave　whom　he　has　once　established　there；　it　follows　that　the　slave　is　proprietor；　as　well　as　the　master。


〃The　Barbarians；〃　again　says　M。　Laboulaye；　〃were　the　first　to　recognize　the　slave's　rights　of　fa