f the Academy of Besancon； is simply a study of this nature。
The time has come for me to relate the history of this unlucky treatise； which has already caused me so much chagrin； and made me so unpopular； but which was on my part so involuntary and unpremeditated； that I would dare to affirm that there is not an economist； not a philosopher； not a jurist； who is not a hundred times guiltier than I。 There is something so singular in the way in which I was led to attack property； that if； on hearing my sad story； you persist； sir； in your blame； I hope at least you will be forced to pity me。
I never have pretended to be a great politician； far from that； I always have felt for controversies of a political nature the greatest aversion； and if； in my 〃Essay on Property；〃 I have sometimes ridiculed our politicians； believe； sir； that I was governed much less by my pride in the little that I know； than by my vivid consciousness of their ignorance and excessive vanity。 Relying more on Providence than on men； not suspecting at first that politics； like every other science； contained an absolute truth； agreeing equally well with Bossuet and Jean Jacques；I accepted with resignation my share of human misery； and contented myself with praying to God for good deputies； upright ministers； and an honest king。 By taste as well as by discretion and lack of confidence in my powers； I was slowly pursuing some commonplace studies in philology； mingled with a little metaphysics； when I suddenly fell upon the greatest problem that ever has occupied philosophical minds： I mean the criterion of certainty。
Those of my readers who are unacquainted with the philosophical terminology will be glad to be told in a few words what this criterion is； which plays so great a part in my work。
The criterion of certainty； according to the philosophers； will be； when discovered； an infallible method of establishing the truth of an opinion； a judgment； a theory； or a system； in nearly the same way as gold is recognized by the touchstone； as iron approaches the magnet； or； better still； as we verify a mathematical operation by applying the PROOF。 TIME has hitherto served as a sort of criterion for society。 Thus； the primitive menhaving observed that they were not all equal in strength； beauty； and laborjudged； and rightly； that certain ones among them were called by nature to the performance of simple and common functions； but they concluded； and this is where their error lay； that these same individuals of duller intellect； more restricted genius； and weaker personality； were predestined to SERVE the others； that is； to labor while the latter rested； and to have no other will than theirs： and from this idea of a natural subordination among men sprang domesticity； which； voluntarily accepted at first； was imperceptibly converted into horrible slavery。 Time； making this error more palpable； has brought about justice。 Nations have learned at their own cost that the subjection of man to man is a false idea； an erroneous theory； pernicious alike to master and to slave。 And yet such a social system has stood several thousand years； and has been defended by celebrated philosophers； even to…day； under somewhat mitigated forms； sophists of every description uphold and extol it。 But experience is bringing it to an end。
Time； then； is the criterion of societies； thus looked at； history is the demonstration of the errors of humanity by the argument _reductio ad absurdum_。
Now； the criterion sought for by metaphysicians would have the advantage of discriminating at once between the true and the false in every opinion； so that in politics； religion； and morals； for example； the true and the useful being immediately recognized； we should no longer need to await the sorrowful experience of time。 Evidently such a secret would be death to the sophists；that cursed brood； who； under different names； excite the curiosity of nations； and； owing to the difficulty of separating the truth from the error in their artistically woven theories； lead them into fatal ventures； disturb their peace； and fill them with such extraordinary prejudice。
Up to this day； the criterion of certainty remains a mystery； this is owing to the multitude of criteria that have been successively proposed。 Some have taken for an absolute and definite criterion the testimony of the senses； others intuition； these evidence； those argument。 M。 Lamennais affirms that there is no other criterion than universal reason。 Before him； M。 de Bonald thought he had discovered it in language。 Quite recently； M。 Buchez has proposed morality； and； to harmonize them all； the eclectics have said that it was absurd to seek for an absolute criterion； since there were as many criteria as special orders of knowledge。
Of all these hypotheses it may be observed； That the testimony of the senses is not a criterion； because the senses； relating us only to phenomena； furnish us with no ideas； that intuition needs external confirmation or objective certainty； that evidence requires proof； and argument verification； that universal reason has been wrong many a time； that language serves equally well to express the true or the false； that morality； like all the rest； needs demonstration and rule； and finally； that the eclectic idea is the least reasonable of all； since it is of no use to say that there are several criteria if we cannot point out one。 I very much fear that it will be with the criterion as with the philosopher's stone； that it will finally be abandoned； not only as insolvable； but as chimerical。 Consequently； I entertain no hopes of having found it； nevertheless； I am not sure that some one more skilful will not discover it。
Be it as it may with regard to a criterion or criteria； there are methods of demonstration which； when applied to certain subjects； may lead to the discovery of unknown truths； bring to light relations hitherto unsuspected； and lift a paradox to the highest degree of certainty。 In such a case； it is not by its novelty； nor even by its content； that a system should be judged； but by its method。 The critic； then； should follow the example of the Supreme Court； which； in the cases which come before it； never examines the facts； but only the form of procedure。 Now； what is the form of procedure？ A method。
I then looked to see what philosophy； in the absence of a criterion； had accomplished by the aid of special methods； and I must say that I could not discoverin spite of the loudly… proclaimed pretensions of somethat it had produced any thing of real value； and； at last； wearied with the philosophical twaddle； I resolved to make a new search for the criterion。 I confess it； to my shame； this folly lasted for two years； and I am not yet entirely rid of it。 It was like seeking a needle in a haystack。 I might have learned Chinese or Arabic in the time that I have lost in considering and reconsidering syllogisms； in rising to the summit of an induction as to the top of a ladder； in inserting a proposition between the horns of a dilemma； in decomposing； distinguishing； separating； denying； affirming； admitting； as if I could pass abstractions through a sieve。
I selected justice as the subject…matter of my experiments。 Finally； after a thousand decompositions； recompositions； and double compositions； I found at the bottom of my analytical crucible； not the criterion of certainty； but a metaphysico… economico…political treatise； whose conclusions were such that I did not care to present them in a more artistic or； if you will； more intelligible form。 The effect which this work produced upon all classes of minds gave me an idea of the spirit of our age； and did not cause me to regret the prudent and scientific obscurity of my style。 How happens it that to…day I am obliged to defend my intentions； when my conduct bears the evident impress of such lofty morality？
You have read my work； sir； and you know the gist of my tedious and scholastic lucubrations。 Considering the revolutions of humanity； the vicissitudes of empires； the transformations of property； and the innumerable forms of justice and of right； I asked； 〃Are the evils which afflict us inherent in our condition as men； or do they arise only from an error？ This inequality of fortunes which all admit to be the cause of society's embarrassments； is it； as some assert； the effect of Nature； or； in the division of the products of labor and the soil； may there not have been some error in calculation？ Does each laborer receive all that is due him； and only that which is due him？ In short； in the present conditions of labor； wages； and exchange； is no one wronged？are the accounts well kept？is the social balance accurate？〃
Then I commenced a most laborious investigation。 It was necessary to arrange informal notes； to discuss contradictory titles； to reply to captious allegations； to refute absurd pretensions； and to describe fictitious debts； dishonest transactions； and fraudulent accounts。 In order to triumph over quibblers； I had to deny the authority of custom； to examine the arguments of legislators； and to oppose science with science itself。 Finally； all these operations completed； I had to give a judicial dec