fect than when it has been established for the protection of Privilege of the most restricted kind。 By Privilege I do not at this moment mean the old abuses by which certain rights were conceded to a few； to the prejudice of the many； no； I am using it to express the social circle of the governing class。 But throughout creation Nature has confined the vital principle within a narrow space； in order to concentrate its power； and so it is with the body politic。 I will illustrate this thought of mine by examples。 Let us suppose that there are a hundred peers in France； there are only one hundred causes of offence。 Abolish the peerage； and all the wealthy people will constitute the privileged class； instead of a hundred； you will have ten thousand； instead of removing class distinctions； you have merely widened the mischief。 In fact； from the people's point of view； the right to live without working is in itself a privilege。 The unproductive consumer is a robber in their eyes。 The only work that they understand has palpable results； they set no value on intellectual laborthe kind of labor which is the principal source of wealth to them。 So by multiplying causes of offence in this way； you extend the field of battle； the social war would be waged on all points instead of being confined within a limited circle； and when attack and resistance become general； the ruin of a country is imminent。 Because the rich will always be fewer in number； the victory will be to the poor as soon as it comes to actual fighting。 I will throw the burden of proof on history。
〃The institution of Senatorial Privilege enabled the Roman Republic to conquer the world。 The Senate preserved the tradition of authority。 But when the equites and the novi homines had extended the governing classes by adding to the numbers of the Patricians； the State came to ruin。 In spite of Sylla； and after the time of Julius Caesar； Tiberius raised it into the Roman Empire； the system was embodied in one man； and all authority was centered in him； a measure which prolonged the magnificent sway of the Roman for several centuries。 The Emperor had ceased to dwell in Rome when the Eternal City fell into the hands of barbarians。 When the conqueror invaded our country； the Franks who divided the land among themselves invented feudal privilege as a safeguard for property。 The hundred or the thousand chiefs who owned the country； established their institutions with a view to defending the rights gained by conquest。 The duration of the feudal system was co…existent with the restriction of Privilege。 But when the leudes （an exact translation of the word GENTLEMEN） from five hundred became fifty thousand； there came a revolution。 The governing power was too widely diffused； it lacked force and concentration； and they had not reckoned with the two powers； Money and Thought； that had set those free who had been beneath their rule。 So the victory over the monarchical system； obtained by the middle classes with a view to extending the number of the privileged class； will produce its natural effectthe people will triumph in turn over the middle classes。 If this trouble comes to pass； the indiscriminate right of suffrage bestowed upon the masses will be a dangerous weapon in their hands。 The man who votes； criticises。 An authority that is called in question is no longer an authority。 Can you imagine a society without a governing authority？ No； you cannot。 Therefore； authority means force； and a basis of just judgement should underlie force。 Such are the reasons which have led me to think that the principle of popular election is a most fatal one for modern governments。 I think that my attachment to the poor and suffering classes has been sufficiently proved； and that no one will accuse me of bearing any ill…will towards them； but though I admire the sublime patience and resignation with which they tread the path of toil； I must pronounce them to be unfit to take part in the government。 The proletariat seem to me to be the minors of a nation； and ought to remain in a condition of tutelage。 Therefore； gentlemen； the word ELECTION； to my thinking； is in a fair way to cause as much mischief as the words CONSCIENCE and LIBERTY； which ill…defined and ill…understood； were flung broadcast among the people； to serve as watchwords of revolt and incitements to destruction。 It seems to me to be a right and necessary thing that the masses should be kept in tutelage for the good of society。〃
〃This system of yours runs so clean contrary to everybody's notions nowadays； that we have some right to ask your reasons for it；〃 said Genestas； interrupting the doctor。
〃By all means； captain。〃
〃What is this the master is saying？〃 cried Jacquotte； as she went back to her kitchen。 〃There he is； the poor dear man； and what is he doing but advising them to crush the people！ And they are listening to him〃
〃I would never have believed it of M。 Benassis；〃 answered Nicolle。
〃If I require that the ignorant masses should be governed by a strong hand；〃 the doctor resumed； after a brief pause； 〃I should desire at the same time that the framework of the social system should be sufficiently yielding and elastic to allow those who have the will and are conscious of their ability to emerge from the crowd； to rise and take their place among the privileged classes。 The aim of power of every kind is its own preservation。 In order to live； a government； to…day as in the past； must press the strong men of the nation into its service； taking them from every quarter； so as to make them its defenders； and to remove from among the people the men of energy who incite the masses to insurrection。 By opening out in this way to the public ambition paths that are at once difficult and easy； easy for strong wills； difficult for weak or imperfect ones； a State averts the perils of the revolutions caused by the struggles of men of superior powers to rise to their proper level。 Our long agony of forty years should have made it clear to any man who has brains that social superiorities are a natural outcome of the order of things。 They are of three kinds that cannot be questionedthe superiority of the thinker； the superiority of the politician； the superiority of wealth。 Is not that as much as to say； genius； power； and money； or； in yet other wordsthe cause； the means； and the effect？ But suppose a kind of social tabula rasa； every social unit perfectly equal； an increase of population everywhere in the same ratio； and give the same amount of land to each family； it would not be long before you would again have all the existing inequalities of fortune； it is glaringly evident； therefore； that there are such things as superiority of fortune； of thinking capacity； and of power； and we must make up our minds to this fact； but the masses will always regard rights that have been most honestly acquired as privileges； and as a wrong done to themselves。
〃The SOCIAL CONTRACT founded upon this basis will be a perpetual pact between those who have and those who have not。 And acting on these principles； those who benefit by the laws will be the lawmakers； for they necessarily have the instinct of self…preservation； and foresee their dangers。 It is even more to their interest than to the interest of the masses themselves that the latter should be quiet and contented。 The happiness of the people should be ready made for the people。 If you look at society as a whole from this point of view； you will soon see； as I do； that the privilege of election ought only to be exercised by men who possess wealth； power； or intelligence； and you will likewise see that the action of the deputies they may choose to represent them should be considerably restricted。
〃The maker of laws； gentlemen； should be in advance of his age。 It is his business to ascertain the tendency of erroneous notions popularly held； to see the exact direction in which the ideas of a nation are tending； he labors for the future rather than for the present； and for the rising generation rather than for the one that is passing away。 But if you call in the masses to make the laws； can they rise above their own level？ Nay。 The more faithfully an assembly represents the opinions held by the crowd； the less it will know about government； the less lofty its ideas will be； and the more vague and vacillating its policy； for the crowd is and always will be simply a crowd； and this especially with us in France。 Law involves submission to regulations； man is naturally opposed to rules and regulations of all kinds； especially if they interfere with his interests； so is it likely that the masses will enact laws that are contrary to their own inclinations？ No。
〃Very often legislation ought to run counter to the prevailing tendencies of the time。 If the law is to be shaped by the prevailing habits of thought and tendencies of a nation； would not that mean that in Spain a direct encouragement would be given to idleness and religious intolerance； in England； to the commercial spirit； in Italy； to the love of the arts that may be the expression of a society； but by which no society can entirely exist； in Germany； feudal class distinctions would be fostered； and here； in France； popular legislation would promote t