without him。
When the great proprietors of land spend their rents in
maintaining their tenants and retainers； each of them maintains
entirely all his own tenants and all his own retainers。 But when
they spend them in maintaining tradesmen and artificers； they
may； all of them taken together； perhaps； maintain as great； or；
on account of the waste which attends rustic hospitality； a
greater number of people than before。 Each of them； however；
taken singly； contributes often but a very small share to the
maintenance of any individual of this greater number。 Each
tradesman or artificer derives his subsistence from the
employment； not of one； but of a hundred or a thousand different
customers。 Though in some measure obliged to them all； therefore；
he is not absolutely dependent upon any one of them。
The personal expense of the great proprietors having in this
manner gradually increased； it was impossible that the number of
their retainers should not as gradually diminish till they were
at last dismissed altogether。 The same cause gradually led them
to dismiss the unnecessary part of their tenants。 Farms were
enlarged； and the occupiers of land； notwithstanding the
complaints of depopulation； reduced to the number necessary for
cultivating it； according to the imperfect state of cultivation
and improvement in those times。 By the removal of the unnecessary
mouths； and by exacting from the farmer the full value of the
farm； a greater surplus； or what is the same thing； the price of
a greater surplus； was obtained for the proprietor； which the
merchants and manufacturers soon furnished him with a method of
spending upon his own person in the same manner as he had done
the rest。 The same cause continuing to operate； he was desirous
to raise his rents above what his lands； in the actual state of
their improvement； could afford。 His tenants could agree to this
upon one condition only； that they should be secured in their
possession for such a term of years as might give them time to
recover with profit whatever they should lay out in the further
improvement of the land。 The expensive vanity of the landlord
made him willing to accept of this condition； and hence the
origin of long leases。
Even a tenant at will； who pays the full value of the land；
is not altogether dependent upon the landlord。 The pecuniary
advantages which they receive from one another are mutual and
equal； and such a tenant will expose neither his life nor his
fortune in the service of the proprietor。 But if he has a lease
for a long term of years； he is altogether independent； and his
landlord must not expect from him the most trifling service
beyond what is either expressly stipulated in the lease or
imposed upon him by the common and known law of the country。
The tenants having in this manner become independent； and
the retainers being dismissed； the great proprietors were no
longer capable of interrupting the regular execution of justice
or of disturbing the peace of the country。 Having sold their
birthright； not like Esau for a mess of pottage in time of hunger
and necessity； but in the wantonness of plenty； for trinkets and
baubles； fitter to be the playthings of children than the serious
pursuits of men； they became as insignificant as any substantial
burgher or tradesman in a city。 A regular government was
established in the country as well as in the city； nobody having
sufficient power to disturb its operations in the one any more
than in the other。
It does not； perhaps； relate to the present subject； but I
cannot help remarking it； that very old families； such as have
possessed some considerable estate from father to son for many
successive generations are very rare in commercial countries。 In
countries which have little commerce； on the contrary； such as
Wales or the highlands of Scotland； they are very common。 The
Arabian histories seem to be all full of genealogies； and there
is a history written by a Tartar Khan； which has been translated
into several European languages； and which contains scarce
anything else； a proof that ancient families are very common
among those nations。 In countries where a rich man can spend his
revenue in no other way than by maintaining as many people as it
can maintain； he is not apt to run out； and his benevolence it
seems is seldom so violent as to attempt to maintain more than he
can afford。 But where he can spend the greatest revenue upon his
own person； he frequently has no bounds to his expense； because
he frequently has no bounds to his vanity or to his affection for
his own person。 In commercial countries； therefore； riches； in
spite of the most violent regulations of law to prevent their
dissipation； very seldom remain long in the same family。 Among
simple nations； on the contrary； they frequently do without any
regulations of law； for among nations of shepherds； such as the
Tartars and Arabs； the consumable nature of their property
necessarily renders all such regulations impossible。
A revolution of the greatest importance to the public
happiness was in this manner brought about by two different
orders of people who had not the least intention to serve the
public。 To gratify the most childish vanity was the sole motive
of the great proprietors。 The merchants and artificers； much less
ridiculous； acted merely from a view to their own interest； and
in pursuit of their own pedlar principle of turning a penny
wherever a penny was to be got。 Neither of them had either
knowledge or foresight of that great revolution which the folly
of the one； and the industry of the other； was gradually bringing
about。
It is thus that through the greater part of Europe the
commerce and manufactures of cities； instead of being the effect；
have been the cause and occasion of the improvement and
cultivation of the country。
This order； however； being contrary to the natural course of
things； is necessarily both slow and uncertain。 Compare the slow
progress of those European countries of which the wealth depends
very much upon their commerce and manufactures with the rapid
advances of our North American colonies； of which the wealth is
founded altogether in agriculture。 Through the greater part of
Europe the number of inhabitants is not supposed to double in
less than five hundred years。 In several of our North American
colonies； it is found to double in twenty or five…and…twenty
years。 In Europe； the law of primogeniture and perpetuities of
different kinds prevent the division of great estates； and
thereby hinder the multiplication of small proprietors。 A small
proprietor； however； who knows every part of his little
territory； who views it with all the affection which property；
especially small property； naturally inspires； and who upon that
account takes pleasure not only in cultivating but in adorning
it； is generally of all improvers the most industrious； the most
intelligent； and the most successful。 The same regulations；
besides； keep so much land out of the market that there are
always more capitals to buy than there is land to sell； so that
what is sold always sells at a monopoly price。 The rent never
pays the interest of the purchase…money； and is； besides；
burdened with repairs and other occasional charges to which the
interest of money is not liable。 To purchase land is everywhere
in Europe a most unprofitable employment of a small capital。 For
the sake of the superior security； indeed； a man of moderate
circumstances； when he retires from business； will sometimes
choose to lay out his little capital in land。 A man of profession
too； whose revenue is derived from。 another source； often loves
to secure his savings in the same way。 But a young man； who；
instead of applying to trade or to some profession； should employ
a capital of two or three thousand pounds in the purchase and
cultivation of a small piece of land； might indeed expect to live
very happily； and very independently； but must bid adieu forever
to all hope of either great fortune or great illustration； which
by a different employment of his stock he might have had the same
chance of acquiring with other people。 Such a person too； though
he cannot aspire at being a proprietor； will often disdain to be
a farmer。 The small quantity of land； therefore； which is brought
to market； and the high price of what is brought thither；
prevents a great number of capitals from being employed in its
cultivation and improvement which would otherwise have taken that
direction。 In North America； on the contrary； fifty or sixty
pounds is often found a sufficient stock to begin a plantation
with。 The purchase and improvement of uncultivated land is there
the most profitable employment of the smallest as well as of the
greatest capitals； and the most direct road to all the fortune
and illustration which can be acquired in that country。 Such
land； indeed； is in North America to be had almost for nothing；
or at a price much below the value of the natural produce… a
thing impossible