An inland country； naturally fertile and easily cultivated；
produces a great surplus of provisions beyond what is necessary
for maintaining the cultivators； and on account of the expense of
land carriage； and inconveniency of river navigation； it may
frequently be difficult to send this surplus abroad。 Abundance；
therefore； renders provisions cheap； and encourages a great
number of workmen to settle in the neighbourhood； who find that
their industry can there procure them more of the necessaries and
conveniencies of life than in other places。 They work up the
materials of manufacture which the land produces； and exchange
their finished work； or what is the same thing the price of it；
for more materials and provisions。 They give a new value to the
surplus part of the rude produce by saving the expense of
carrying it to the water side or to some distant market； and they
furnish the cultivators with something in exchange for it that is
either useful or agreeable to them upon easier terms than they
could have obtained it before。 The cultivators get a better price
for their surplus produce； and can purchase cheaper other
conveniences which they have occasion for。 They are thus both
encouraged and enabled to increase this surplus produce by a
further improvement and better cultivation of the land； and as
the fertility of the land had given birth to the manufacture； so
the progress of the manufacture reacts upon the land and
increases still further its fertility。 The manufacturers first
supply the neighbourhood； and afterwards； as their work improves
and refines； more distant markets。 For though neither the rude
produce nor even the coarse manufacture could； without the
greatest difficulty； support the expense of a considerable land
carriage； the refined and improved manufacture easily may。 In a
small bulk it frequently contains the price of a great quantity
of rude produce。 A piece of fine cloth； for example； which weighs
only eighty pounds； contains in it； the price； not only of eighty
pounds' weight of wool； but sometimes of several thousand weight
of corn； the maintenance of the different working people and of
their immediate employers。 The corn； which could with difficulty
have been carried abroad in its own shape； is in this manner
virtually exported in that of the complete manufacture； and may
easily be sent to the remotest corners of the world。 In this
manner have grown up naturally； and as it were of their own
accord； the manufactures of Leeds； Halifax； Sheffield；
Birmingham； and Wolverhampton。 Such manufactures are the
offspring of agriculture。 In the modern history of Europe； their
extension and improvement have generally been posterior to those
which were the offspring of foreign commerce。 England was noted
for the manufacture of fine cloths made of Spanish wool more than
a century before any of those which now flourish in the places
above mentioned were fit for foreign sale。 The extension and
improvement of these last could not take place but in consequence
of the extension and improvement of agriculture the last and
greatest effect of foreign commerce； and of the manufactures
immediately introduced by it； and which I shall now proceed to
explain。
CHAPTER IV
How the Commerce of the Towns Contributed to the Improvement of
the Country
THE increase and riches of commercial and manufacturing
towns contributed to the improvement and cultivation of the
countries to which they belonged in three different ways。
First； by affording a great and ready market for the rude
produce of the country； they gave encouragement to its
cultivation and further improvement。 This benefit was not even
confined to the countries in which they were situated； but
extended more or less to all those with which they had any
dealings。 To all of them they afforded a market for some part
either of their rude or manufactured produce； and consequently
gave some encouragement to the industry and improvement of all。
Their own country； however； on account of its neighbourhood；
necessarily derived the greatest benefit from this market。 Its
rude produce being charged with less carriage； the traders could
pay the growers a better price for it； and yet afford it as cheap
to the consumers as that of more distant countries。
Secondly； the wealth acquired by the inhabitants of cities
was frequently employed in purchasing such lands as were to be
sold； of which a great part would frequently be uncultivated。
Merchants are commonly ambitious of becoming country gentlemen；
and when they do； they are generally the best of all improvers。 A
merchant is accustomed to employ his money chiefly in profitable
projects； whereas a mere country gentleman is accustomed to
employ it chiefly in expense。 The one often sees his money go
from him and return to him again with a profit； the other； when
once he parts with it； very seldom expects to see any more of it。
Those different habits naturally affect their temper and
disposition in every sort of business。 A merchant is commonly a
bold； a country gentleman a timid undertaker。 The one is not
afraid to lay out at once a large capital upon the improvement of
his land when he has a probable prospect of raising the value of
it in proportion to the expense。 The other； if he has any
capital； which is not always the case； seldom ventures to employ
it in this manner。 If he improves at all； it is commonly not with
a capital； but with what he can save out of his annual revenue。
Whoever has had the fortune to live in a mercantile town situated
in an unimproved country must have frequently observed how much
more spirited the operations of merchants were in this way than
those of mere country gentlemen。 The habits； besides； of order；
economy； and attention； to which mercantile business naturally
forms a merchant； render him much fitter to execute； with profit
and success； any project of improvement。
Thirdly； and lastly； commerce and manufactures gradually
introduced order and good government； and with them； the liberty
and security of individuals； among the inhabitants of the
country； who had before lived almost in a continual state of war
with their neighbours and of servile dependency upon their
superiors。 This； though it has been the least observed； is by far
the most important of all their effects。 Mr。 Hume is the only
writer who； so far as I know； has hitherto taken notice of it。
In a country which has neither foreign commerce； nor any of
the finer manufactures； a great proprietor； having nothing for
which he can exchange the greater part of the produce of his
lands which is over and above the maintenance of the cultivators；
consumes the whole in rustic hospitality at home。 If this surplus
produce is sufficient to maintain a hundred or a thousand men； he
can make use of it in no other way than by maintaining a hundred
or a thousand men。 He is at all times； therefore； surrounded with
a multitude of retainers and dependants； who； having no
equivalent to give in return for their maintenance； but being fed
entirely by his bounty； must obey him； for the same reason that
soldiers must obey the prince who pays them。 Before the extension
of commerce and manufacture in Europe； the hospitality of the
rich； and the great； from the sovereign down to the smallest
baron； exceeded everything which in the present times we can
easily form a notion of。 Westminster Hall was the dining…room of
William Rufus； and might frequently； perhaps； not be too large
for his company。 It was reckoned a piece of magnificence in
Thomas Becket that he strewed the floor of his hall with clean
hay or rushes in the season； in order that the knights and
squires who could not get seats might not spoil their fine
clothes when they sat down on the floor to eat their dinner。 The
great Earl of Warwick is said to have entertained every day at
his different manors thirty thousand people； and though the
number here may have been exaggerated； it must； however； have
been very great to admit of such exaggeration。 A hospitality
nearly of the same kind was exercised not many years ago in many
different parts of the highlands of Scotland。 It seems to be
common in all nations to whom commerce and manufactures are
little known。 〃I have seen；〃 says Doctor Pocock； 〃an Arabian
chief dine in the streets of a town where he had come to sell his
cattle； and invite all passengers； even common beggars； to sit
down with him and partake of his banquet。〃
The occupiers of land were in every respect as dependent
upon the great proprietor as his retainers。 Even such of them as
were not in a state of villanage were tenants at will； who paid a
rent in no respect equivalent to the subsistence which the land
afforded them。 A crown； half a crown； a sheep； a lamb； was some
years ago in the highlands of Scotland a common rent for lands
which maintained a family。 In some places it is so at this day；
nor will money at present purchase a greater quantity of
commodities there than in