Wolffian philosophy … for this it had not been possible to eradicate … and it declared the same to
be harmless； that is to say； free from all danger to state and religion； it also forbade the theologians
to make it a subject of dispute； and altogether put an end to their clamour。 Frederick William now
issued a recall in very respectful terms to Wolff； who； however； hesitated to comply with it owing
to his lack of confidence in its sincerity。 On the accession of Frederick II。 in 1740 he was again
recalled in terms of the highest honour （Lange had meanwhile died）； and only then did be comply。
Wolff became Vice…Chancellor of the University； but he outlived his repute； and his lectures at the
end were very poorly attended。 He died in 1754。（1）
Like Tschirnhausen and Thomasius； Wolff wrote a great part of his works in his mother tongue；
while Leibnitz for the most part wrote only in Latin or French。 This is an important matter； for； as
we have already noticed （pp。 114 and 150）； it is only when a nation possesses a science in its own
language that it can really be said to belong to it； and in Philosophy most of all this is requisite。 For
thought has in it this very moment of pertaining to self…consciousness or of being absolutely its
own； when one's own language is the vehicle of expression； as when we talk of 〃Bestimmtheit〃
instead of 〃Determination；〃 and 〃Wesen〃 instead of 〃Essenz；〃 it is immediately present to our
consciousness that the conceptions are absolutely its own； it has to deal with these at all times； and
they are in no way foreign to it。 The Latin language has a phraseology； a definite sphere and range
of conception； it is at once taken for granted that when men write in Latin they are at liberty to be
dull； it is impossible to read or write what men permit themselves to say in Latin。 The titles of
Wolff's philosophic works are perpetually of this nature： 〃Rational thoughts on the powers of the
human understanding and their right uses in the knowledge of the truth；〃 Halle； 1712； 8vo；
〃Rational thoughts on God； the world； and the soul of man； likewise on all things generally；〃
Frankfort and Leipzig； 1719； 〃On the action and conduct of men；〃 Halle； 1720； 〃On Social Life；〃
Halle； 1720； 〃On the operations of Nature；〃 Halle； 1723； and so on。 Wolff wrote German and
Latin quartos on every department of Philosophy； even on economics … twenty…three thick
volumes of Latin； or about forty quartos altogether。 His mathematical works make a good many
more quartos。 He brought into general use the differential and integral calculus of Leibnitz。
It is only in its general content and taken as a whole that Wolff's philosophy is the philosophy of
Leibnitz； that is to say； only in relation to the fundamental determinations of monads and to the
theodicy … to these he remained faithful； any other content is empiric； derived from our feelings and
desires。 Wolff likewise accepted in their entirety all the Cartesian and other definitions of general
ideas。 Hence we find in him abstract propositions and their proofs mingled with experiences； on
the indubitable truth of which he builds a large part of his propositions； and he must so build and
derive his foundations if a content is to result at all。 With Spinoza； on the contrary； no content is to
be found excepting absolute substance and a perpetual return into the same。 The greatness of
Wolff's services to the culture of Germany； which now； appeared quite independently and without
any connection with an earlier and profounder metaphysical standpoint （supra； p。 350）； are in
proportion to the barrenness and inward contentless condition into which Philosophy had sunk。
This he divided into its formal disciplines； spinning it out； into determinations of the understanding
with a pedantic application of geometric methods； and； contemporaneously with the English
philosophers； he made the dogmatism of the metaphysics of the understanding fashionable； that is
a； philosophizing which determines the absolute and rational by means of self…exclusive
thought…determinations and relationships （such as one and many； simple and compound； finite and
infinite； causal connection； &c。）。 Wolff entirely displaced the Aristotelian philosophy of the
schools； and made Philosophy into an ordinary science pertaining to the German nation。 But
besides this he gave Philosophy that systematic and requisite division into sections which has down
to the present day served as a sort of standard。
In theoretic philosophy Wolff first treats of Logic purified from scholastic interpretations or
deductions； it is the logic of the understanding which he has systematized。 The second stage is
Metaphysics； which contains four parts： first there is Ontology； the treatment of abstract and quite
general philosophic categories； such as Being and its being the One and Good； in this abstract
metaphysic there further comes accident； substance； cause and effect； the phenomenon； &c。 Next
in order is Cosmology； a general doctrine of body； the doctrine of the world； here we have
abstract metaphysical propositions respecting the world； that there is no chance； no leaps or
bounds in nature … the law of continuity。 Wolff excludes natural science and natural history。 The
third part of the metaphysic is rational psychology or pneumatology； the philosophy of the soul；
which deals with the simplicity； immortality； immateriality of the soul。 Finally； the fourth is natural
theology； which sets forth the proofs of the existence of God。（2） Wolff also inserts （chap。 iii。） an
empirical psychology。 Practical philosophy he divides into the Rights of Nature； Morality； the
Rights of Nations or Politics； and Economics。
The whole is propounded in geometric forms such as definitions； axioms； theorems； scholia；
corollaries； &c。 In mathematics the understanding is in its proper place； for the triangle must
remain the triangle。 Wolff on the one hand started upon a large range of investigation； and one
quite indefinite in character； and on the other； held to a strictly methodical manner with regard to
propositions and their proofs。 The method is really similar to that of Spinoza； only it is more
wooden and lifeless than his。 Wolff applied the same methods to every sort of content … even to
that which is altogether empirical； such as his so…called applied mathematics； into which he
introduces many useful arts； bringing the most ordinary reflections and directions into the geometric
form。 In many cases this undoubtedly gives his work a most pedantic aspect； especially when the
content directly justifies itself to our conception without this form at all。 For Wolff proceeds by first
laying down certain definitions； which really rest upon our ordinary conceptions； since these he
translated into the empty form of determinations of the understanding。 Hence the definitions are
merely nominal definitions； and we know whether they are correct only by seeing whether they
correspond to conceptions which are referred to their simple thoughts。 The syllogism is the form of
real importance in this mode of reasoning； and with Wolff it often attains to its extreme of rigidity
and formalism。
Under mathematics； which is the subject of four small volumes； Wolff also treats of architecture
and military science。 One of the propositions in Architecture is this： 〃Windows must be wide
enough for two persons。〃 The making of a door is also propounded as a task； and the solution
thereof given。 The next best example comes from the art of warfare。 The 〃Fourth proposition。 The
approach to the fortress must always be harder for the enemy the nearer he comes to it。〃 Instead
of saying because the danger is greater； which would be trivial； there follows the 〃Proof。 The
nearer the enemy comes to the fortress； the greater the danger。 But the greater the danger the
greater the resistance that must be offered in order to defy the attacks； and； so far as may be；
avert the danger。 Hence the nearer the enemy is to the fort the harder must the approach be made
for him。 Q。E。D。〃（3） Since the increase of the danger is given as the reason； the whole is false； and
the contrary may be said with equal truth。 For if at the beginning all possible resistance is offered
to the enemy； he cannot get nearer the fortress at all； and thus the danger cannot become greater。
The greater resistance has a real cause； and not this foolish one … namely； that because the garrison
is now at closer quarters； and consequently operates in a narrow field； it can offer a greater
resistance。 In this most trivial way Wolff proceeds with every sort of content。 This barbarism of
pedantry； or this pedantry of barbarism； represented as it is in its whole breadth and extent；
necessarily brought itself into disrepute； and without there being a definite consciousness of the
reason why the geometric method is not the only and ultimate method of knowledge； instinct and
an immediate consciousness of the foolishness of its applications caused this method to be set
aside。
C 3。 THE POPULAR PHILOSOPHY OF
GERMANY。
Popular philosophy flatters our ordinary consciousness； makes it the ultimate standard。 Although
with Spinoza we begin