impact of the drug。
b） Because of this pensatory response； if the drug is taken in
the same manner and in the same environment consistently；
greater doses of the drug are needed to maintain the same
high。 If； after doing drugs in the same environment repeatedly；
the drug user does drugs in a new environment； the CS （the
environment） will not be present； and the body will not
produce the pensatory response。 Because the body is not
prepared for ingestion of the drug； the drug user is much more
likely to overdose。
4。 Harnessing Classical Conditioning
a） Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged to explore the interaction
of psychology； the nervous system； and the immune system。
One goal of psychoneuroimmunology is to allow conditioning
to replace high doses of medications that have serious side
effects。 As with drug users for which the environment
bees a CS； the environment can be associated with
beneficial drugs so that the environment elicits a positive
conditioned response。
III。 Operant Conditioning： Learning About Consequences
A。 The Law of Effect
1。 The Law of Effect； developed by Edward Thorndike； simply states that
behaviors that are followed by pleasant； positive consequences are
likely to increase in frequency
2。 For Thorndike； learning involved an association between a stimulus
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and a response； a stimulus–response connection
3。 These stimulus–response connections are learned gradually and
mechanistically through blind trial and error
B。 Experimental Analysis of Behavior
1。 B。 F。 Skinner outlined a research program called the experimental
analysis of behavior； whose purpose was to discover the ways that
environmental conditions affect the likelihood that a given response
will occur
2。 Operant Conditioning procedures were developed by Skinner to allow
the experimental analysis of behavior and modify the probability of
different types of operant behavior as a function of the environmental
consequences they produce
3。 An Operant is any behavior that is emitted by an organism and can be
characterized in terms of the observable effects it has on the
environment
C。 Reinforcement Contingencies
1。 A reinforcement contingency is a consistent relationship between a
response and the changes in the environment that it produces
2。 A reinforcer is any stimulus that； when made contingent on a response；
increases the probability of that response
a） A Positive Reinforcer is any stimulus that—when made
contingent on a behavior—increases the probability of that
behavior over time
b） A Negative Reinforcer is any stimulus that； when removed；
reduced； or prevented； increases the probability of a given
response over time
3。 Operant Extinction occurs as reinforcement is withheld
4。 A Punisher is any stimulus that—when it is made contingent on a
response—decreases the probability of that response over time。
a） A Positive Punisher is when a behavior is followed by the
delivery of an aversive stimulus
b） A Negative Punisher is when a behavior is followed by the
removal of an appetitive； or positive； stimulus
5。 Punishment always reduces the probability of a response occurring
6。 Reinforcement always increases the probability of a response occurring
7。 Discriminative Stimuli； through their associations with reinforcement
or punishment； e to set the context for that behavior
8。 The Three…Term Contingency is the sequence of discriminative stimulus–
behavior–consequence that Skinner believed could explain most human
behavior
9。 Behavior analysts assume that behaviors； even apparently self…
destructive and irrational behaviors； persist because they are being
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reinforced
10。 Secondary gains are subtle reinforcers； such as attention； sympathy； or
release from responsibility； that reinforce behaviors that may have
obvious associated negative consequences
D。 Properties of Reinforcers
1。 Primary reinforcers； such as food and water； are reinforcers that are
biologically determined
2。 Conditioned reinforcers are otherwise neutral stimuli that have； over
time； bee associated with primary reinforcers。 Money； grades；
smiles of approval； and gold stars can all act as conditioned
reinforcers。
a） Teachers and researchers often find conditioned reinforcers
more effective and easier to use than primary reinforcers
because：
（i） Few primary reinforcers are available in the classroom
（ii） Conditioned reinforcers can be dispensed rapidly
（iii） Conditioned reinforcers are portable
（iv） The reinforcing effect of conditioned reinforcers may be
more immediate
b） Token economies are contexts； such as psychiatric hospitals
and prisons； in which desired behaviors are explicitly defined
and in which tokens are given by staff for performance of
these behaviors。 The tokens can later be redeemed for
privileges or goods。
c） The Premack Principle suggests that a more probable activity
can be used to reinforce a less probable one。 According to the
Premack Principle； a reinforcer may be any event or activity
that is valued by the organism。
E。 Schedules of Reinforcement
1。 Reinforcers can be delivered according to either ratio or interval
schedules。 Each of these schedules can be used with a fixed or variable
pattern of reinforcement。
2。 The Partial Reinforcement Effect states that responses acquired under
schedules of partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than
those acquired with continuous reinforcement
3。 In a Fixed…Ratio Schedule （FR）； reinforcement es after the organism
has emitted a fixed number of responses。 FR schedules produce high
response rates because there is a direct correlation between
responding and reinforcement。
4。 In a Variable…Ratio Schedule （VR）； the average number of responses
between reinforcements remains constant； but the actual number of
responses between reinforcements varies around this average。 VR
schedules produce the highest response rates and the greatest
resistance to extinction。
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5。 In a Fixed…Interval Schedule （FI）； reinforcement is delivered for the first
response made after a fixed period of time has elapsed。 Response rates
under a FI schedule show a scalloped pattern。 Immediately after
reinforcement； response rates are low； but； as the time interval nears
expiration； response rates increase。
6。 In a Variable…Interval Schedule （VI）； the average time interval between
reinforcements is predetermined。 This schedule generates a moderate
but stable response rate。
F。 Shaping
1。 Shaping is a method of behavior modification in which successive
approximations to the desired behavior are reinforced。 For shaping to
be effective； what constitutes progress toward the target behavior must
be defined； and differential reinforcement schedules must be used to
refine behavior。
2。 Chaining is a technique used to teach sequences of actions。 In
chaining； the last response of the sequence is reinforced first。
3。 Each link in the behavior chain serves as a discriminative stimulus for
the next response line and as a conditioned reinforcer for the response
that immediately precedes it
IV。 Biology and Learning
A。 Biological constraints on learning are limitations on learning imposed by a species’ genetic
endowment
B。 Instinctual Drift is the process by which learned behavior drifts toward instinctual
behavior。 Instinctual Drift is understandable considering the species…specific tendencies
imposed by an inherited genotype。
C。 Taste…Aversion Learning is a powerful type of teaming that is learned through only one
pairing of a CS （the flavor） and its consequences （the illness）。 Although the flavor did not
cause the illness； the flavor is associated with the UCS； perhaps a virus； which did cause
the illness。
1。 Once taste…aversion learning has occurred； the organism will never
consume the flavor again
2。 The time between the presentation of the CS and when the organism
bees ill can be very long； 12 hours or more
3。 Certain types of animals are biologically predisposed to learn certain
associations
4。 Taste…aversion learning has practical aspects。 For example； coyotes
can be taught through taste…aversion learning to despise sheep meat。
Vgnitive Influences on Learning
A。 Cognition is any mental activity involved in the representation and processing of
knowledge； such as thinking； remembering； perceiving； and talking
B。 Animal Cognition
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1。 Researchers have demonstrated that it is not only classical and
operant conditioning that generalizes across species。 Cognition； to
some extent； does as well。
2。 Cognitive maps are internal representations of the physical
characteristics of the external environment。 For rats； cognitive maps
may indicate where food is located in a maze。 Spatial cognitive maps
can be used to：
a） Recognize and identify features in the environment
b） Find important goal objects in the environment
c） Plan an efficient route through the envi