current theories of modeling and imitation to formulate his own groundbreaking social learning
theory—behavior modification broadened to a socially oriented context。
Bandura began his studies of aggression with children as participants。 In the course of his
experiments； he discovered that the kinds of behavior exhibited by parents and the attitudes they
expressed toward aggression were vital in determining their children’s behavior。 The implications
of his results were enormous； evoking concern among psychologists and the public over the impact
that excessive violence on television and other media was having on impressionable young minds。
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Bandura synthesized these and other research results in Principles of Behavior Modification；
published in 1969。 An important and precisely written book； it challenged Skinner’s contention
that mental processes should not be considered in a science of behavior。 Bandura’s work won him
a Guggenheim Fellowship and election as president of the American Psychological Association in
1974。 A significant product of his fellowship was his classic text； Aggression： A Social Learning
Analysis。
One of those individuals who is truly happy only when engaged in a number of projects
simultaneously； Bandura is currently conducting research at several different levels。 On a broad
theoretical level； he is studying the development of self…efficacy and the relationship between
people’s moral codes and principles and conduct。 On a more practical level； he is developing the
use of modeling as an essential ingredient of psychotherapy。 Bandura published a pendium of
his research and thinking； Social Foundations of Thought and Action： A Social Cognitive Theory； in
1986。
Konrad Lorenz （b。 1903）
Lorenz obtained his M。D。 in 1928 and Ph。D。 in 1933 from the Anatomical Institute of the University
of Vienna。 Lorenz is widely regarded as the father of ethology； the study of animal behavior as
observed in the natural habitat。 His major contributions include research on imprinting and
aggressive behavior； for which he received the Nobel Prize。 Lorenz espoused a hydraulic model to
account for aggression； arguing that all stored energy； including aggressive energy； must eventually
be discharged。 His most influential work is On Aggression （1966）。
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov （1849—1936）
It is ironic that Ivan Pavlov； whose pioneering work laid the foundations for the behaviorist school
of thought in psychology； believed that psychology was “pletely hopeless” as an independent
science。 Pavlov rather saw his work on conditioning as a problem of physiology； a way in which to
discover the physical properties of the brain。
Born in 1849； the son of a village priest； Pavlov received his early education in a seminary school；
fully intending to follow his father into the priesthood。 Nevertheless； after reading several books on
physiology； he changed his mind and decided on a career in the natural sciences。 Though he
encountered resistance at home； he entered the University of St。 Petersburg and obtained his basic
degree in physiology in 1875。
Pavlov’s research for the next 20 years was concerned primarily with the study of digestive
processes； and it was for his work in this area that he won the Nobel Prize in 1904。 It was in the
course of directing a number of experiments on the digestive glands that he first became aware of
the significance of the conditioned response。 He had been working with dogs as experimental
animals in an effort to establish the precise function of saliva in the digestive process； when he
noticed that many of the dogs secreted saliva even before meat was administered to them。 He
quickly determined that this “psychic response” occurred whenever the dogs either had a
preliminary glimpse of the food or heard the approaching footsteps of the lab assistant who fed
them。
This was so unexpected a phenomenon that he decided to pursue the process as a physiological
problem； receiving generous funding for the enterprise when the Soviet government came to power。
The new regime was anxious to push forward biological and behavioral research； and there was in
Pavlov； Nobel laureate and brilliant experimentalist； a man who could bring the Soviet Union into
the vanguard of scientific research。 A large number of colleagues and assistants joined Pavlov in
his work； thus establishing the longest…lived research project in the history of psychology。 The
Pavlovian paradigm is still used as the major approach to the study of psychology in the Soviet
Union。
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CHAPTER 7： LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Burrhus Frederic Skinner （1904—1990）
B。 F。 Skinner was born in Susquehanna； Pennsylvania； the son of a lawyer。 He attended Hamilton
College where he majored in English； hoping to bee a writer。 During his last year at Hamilton；
Skinner sent some short stories he had written to the poet Robert Frost； hoping for some helpful
criticism。 Much to Skinner’s surprise； Frost replied enthusiastically； encouraging the young author
to pursue a writing career。 Skinner took the advice seriously and set aside a block of time following
graduation in which to apply himself to his chosen discipline。 In looking back on that year； Skinner
wryly mented that while he did indeed write well； he also discovered that he had nothing
important to say。
To remedy that situation； he returned to academia as a graduate student in psychology。 He had
done much reading during his year away from school； and in the course of it； had discovered the
works of John B。 Watson。 The story of Watson’s pioneering efforts excited Skinner’s interest and
thus determined his decision to study psychology。 Skinner was accepted at Harvard and earned
his Ph。D。 in experimental psychology in 1931。 He continued with postdoctoral work until 1936；
when he accepted a teaching position at the University of Minnesota。 Throughout this period；
Skinner had been formulating and testing his theories on conditioning。 So impressive were the
results he achieved in controlling the behavior of laboratory animals； the U。S。 government
employed him in a top…secret project during World War II。 Skinner was given funding to condition
pigeons to guide missiles directly down the smokestacks of warships。
After the war； Skinner did not hesitate to apply the techniques he had developed to human
participants。 On moving to Indiana University as chairman of its new psychology department； he
constructed his famous “air crib”； a sound…proofed； germ…free “box” enclosed in clear plastic and
intended as an environment in which infants could spend much of their time。 In 1948； Skinner
returned to Harvard University as a member of the faculty。 There he developed the Skinner Box； a
chamber in which animal behavior （particularly that of rats and pigeons） could be precisely
recorded and prepared for statistical analysis。 The apparatus had an immediate impact on
experimental laboratories in universities across the country。
Skinner became convinced that the learning techniques he had hit on with his methodology could
be translated to the environment of the classroom； and so spent most of the 1950s perfecting his
programmed teaching modules for schoolchildren。 With these； children could acquire information
and skills while being led through a series of questions； each of their correct responses eliciting a
reinforcing confirmation。
Throughout his career； Skinner published prolifically； and the American Psychological Association
honored him for his immense contribution with their Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award
in 1958。 Though he retired as the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard； Skinner did not
bee idle。 In the decade before his death； he published his autobiography； Particulars of My Life； a
book on aging； in 1983； and continued to be active； writing； and espousing the controversial brand
of behaviorism for which he became famous。
Edward Lee Thorndike （1874—1949）
Edward Thorndike was born in Williamsburg； Massachusetts； the son of a lawyer。 He graduated
from Wesleyan University in Connecticut in 1875； but showed no interest in psychology until he
read William James’ Principles of Psychology； after which he decided to study under James at
Harvard。 Thorndike’s initial experiments were conducted in the basement of James’ home。 When
James lost interest in experimental work； Thorndike left Harvard and obtained his Ph。D。 at
Columbia University。 There he conducted his famous experiments on cats in puzzle boxes。
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Thorndike was among psychology’s most prolific and versatile scientists； publishing more than
500 monographs； books； and articles during his career。 He applied his considerable intellect to a
wide range of topics； including individual differences； attitudes； vocabulary； intelligence； learning；
and memory。 His many writings include the influential book； Animal Intelligence。
TIMELINE
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1898 Edward L。 Thorndike proposed that learning was controlled by its consequen