We have a great deal of data to indicate that social support during times of stress can effectively reduce
psychological distress。 People who had families who stayed in the Middle East with them during the Gulf
War did much better psychologically than those who had no family there and those whose families
returned to their native country。 Social support also seems both to decrease the likelihood of physical illness
and to speed recovery。 Research has been attempting to identify precisely how social support mitigates
stress and has arrived at two hypotheses：
。 The Direct Effects Hypothesis suggests that social support is always beneficial； during both stressful
and nonstressful times。
。 The Buffering Hypothesis suggests that the physical and mental health benefits of social support occur
mainly during periods of high stress and not during periods of low stress。
Extensive research suggests that both hypotheses are at least partially correct。
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Some of us have a tough time managing and coping with stress on our own。 In such cases； stress
management programs are helpful。 As an example； college can be an appallingly stressful experience for
students。 Being away from home； living with strangers； sharing living space； taking demanding courses；
and increased petition for grades can be very stressful。 Many colleges offer programs to help students
adjust to and cope with the stresses of university life by teaching them stress management techniques。 One
important lesson of these courses is that stress is subjective and self…reinforcing。 The more stressful you
perceive an event to be； the more stressful it will bee。 These programs also teach students to recognize
and record things that stress them out and to write down their reactions to these events。 Sharing
experiences and learning relaxation techniques are also useful ponents of many courses。 The goal of
these courses is not to eliminate stress； but rather to recognize its causes； to cope with them effectively； and
to keep stress to a manageable level。
Gender Differences in Expressed Emotion
You might discuss with your class gender differences in the expression of emotion。 In our culture； men have
traditionally been taught to “bottle…up” their emotions and “tough things out。” To be seen as “strong” for
males often has meant not allowing themselves to cry or show any sign of emotional “weakness。” Even
today； many males are embarrassed to cry in public； no matter how justified they may be in expressing
sadness。 On the other hand； the one emotion that males in our culture have been allowed to express is
anger。 In certain situations； expressions of anger and aggression are seen as “macho” whereas passive
failure to express anger or be aggressive is seen as a sign of weakness。 What impact do these social norms
and expectations have on young boys growing up？ Does this contribute to the higher rates of violent crime
among males？ Does it contribute to males’ higher rates of heart disease and certain types of stress…related
illnesses？ What could be done to make it easier for males to express emotions of sadness and not feel
pressured to be aggressive； and still feel like healthy males？
On the other hand； females are often socialized to express a wide range of emotions； including sadness； and
are not usually chastised for crying in public。 We have traditionally encouraged females to “get in touch
with” their feelings and express them。 But females have much higher rates of reported depression than
255
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
males。 How much of that may be due to excess rumination about feelings of sadness based on “getting in
touch” with those feelings？ Also； females have historically been chastised for openly expressing anger in
public； as it was not considered “ladylike。” But society put females in a somewhat impossible situation； by
encouraging them to cry and express sadness； but not show anger； and then labeling them as “weak” when
they did。 Other than increased risk of depression （mentioned above）； in what ways have these social norms
and expectations affected females？
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Hans Hugo Selye （1907–1982）
Hans Selye was known as “Dr。 Stress” by press and colleagues alike； a name he rightly earned after more
than 42 years of conducting research on the effects of stress on humans。 Born in Vienna in 1907； Selye was
first exposed to medical science through his father； a military surgeon in the Austro…Hungarian army。 He
received his early formal education from the Benedictines and later attended medical school at the German
University of Prague； where he specialized in endocrinology。 Even in his early years in medical school； he
was struck by the fact that the patients he encountered in the hospital exhibited an overall syndrome of
“just being sick” that was more than the mere sum of the specific symptoms of their disease。 This
observation led him in later years to study the body’s reaction to environmental stimuli； a process he called
stress； and to which he attributed aging and； in many cases； illness。
Selye joined the faculty of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the University of Montreal
in 1932 and later founded the International Institute of Stress there。 He wrote more than 30 books but is best
known for Stress Without Distress； which has been printed in over a dozen languages。
Selye’s general prescription for the individual living in modern society is that “the secret is not to avoid
stress but to ‘do your own thing。’ Do what you like and what you were made to do at your own rate。。。。 Earn
thy neighbor’s love。 Be a hoarder of good will to make your environment less stressful。” If this advice
sounds like a bination of biblical saying and medical advice； it is nevertheless typical of Selye’s highly
personal and humanistic style。 His own philosophy is what he termed “altruistic selfishness。” He claimed
that in acting in a helpful manner toward others that one is really helping him… or herself by creating a less
stressful environment。
256
CHAPTER 13： EMOTION； STRESS； AND HEALTH
TIMELINE
Yea Event
r
19141918
World War I was fought。
1920 Physiologist Walter Cannon confirmed that the stress response is part of a unified mind–
body system。
1929 The Great Depression began in America。
19391945
World War II was fought。
1956 Hans Selye published his theory of chronic stress； known today as the General
Adaptation Syndrome。
1960’s Neal Miller found that rats can modify their heart rates if given pleasure through brain
stimulation when their heart rate increases or decreases。
1963 President John F。 Kennedy was assassinated。
1967 Holmes and Rahe published the Social Readjustment Rating Scale。
1968 Kenneth Cooper extolled the virtues of aerobic exercising； spawning the fitness movement。
1969 The first human moon landing occurred。
1974 Friedman； Meyer； and Rosenhan published Type A Behavior and Your Heart。
1975 Herbert Benson popularized the notion of the relaxation response and its role in dealing
successfully with stress。
1979 Albert Ellis and Robert Harper published A New Guide to Rational Living； emphasizing the
role of self talk in stress。
1980 Ronald Reagan was elected President。
1980’s Psychoneuroimmunology emerged as a discipline as researchers explored the relationship
between psychological processes； the nervous system； endocrine system； and the immune
system。
257
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Atkinson； L。； Chisholm； V。； Dickens； S。； Scott； B。； Blackwell； J。； & Tam； F。 （1995）。 Cognitive Coping； Affective
Disorders； and Maternal Sensitivity： Mothers of Children with Down Syndrome。 Developmental Psychology；
31（4）； 668–676。 An applied perspective of stress and coping in “real…life” mothers with “real…life”
children。
Gross； J。 （1998）。 The Emerging Field of Emotion Regulation： An Integrative Review。 Special Issue： New Directions in
Research on Emotion。 Review of General Psychology； 2（3）； 271–299。 A prehensive review of the field of
emotional regulation； an up…and…ing area of emotional research。
Kaniasty； K。 & Norris； F。 H。 （1995）。 Mobilization and Deterioration of Social Support Following Natural Disasters。
Current Directions in Psychological Science； 4（3）； 94–98。 Discusses responses to natural disasters； in terms of
individual coping resources； and the mobilization of social support within munities。 Most
interesting in view of the recent natural disasters visited on the United States。
Lazarus； R。 （1993）。 From Psychological Stress to the Emotions： A History of Changing Outlooks。 Annual Review of
Psychology； 44； 1–21。 A review of changes in theory of stress and emotion over the last several hundred
years。 Also presents a cognitive…motivational…relational theory of emotion。
Lazarus； R。 S。； & Folkman； S。 （1984）。 Stress； Appraisal； and Coping。 New York： Springer。 Presents an overview
of Lazarus’ cognitive approach to the study of stress and emotion。 Includes coverage of how to assess
stress。
Maier； S。 F。； Watkins；