social conditions are on the contrary to be regarded as all the more perfect the less （in comparison
with what is arranged publicly） is left for an individual to do by himself as his private inclination
directs。
§ 243。
When civil society is in a state of unimpeded activity； it is engaged in expanding
internally in population and industry。 The amassing of wealth is intensified by
generalising （a） the linkage of men by their needs； and （b） the methods of
preparing and distributing the means to satisfy these needs； because it is from this
double process of generalisation that the largest profits are derived。 That is one
side of the picture。 The other side is the subdivision and restriction of particular
jobs。 This results in the dependence and distress of the class tied to work of that
sort； and these again entail inability to feel and enjoy the broader freedoms and
especially the intellectual benefits of civil society。
§ 244。
When the standard of living of a large mass of people falls below a certain
subsistence level — a level regulated automatically as the one necessary for a
member of the society — and when there is a consequent loss of the sense of right
and wrong； of honesty and the self…respect which makes a man insist on
maintaining himself by his own work and effort； the result is the creation of a
rabble of paupers。 At the same time this brings with it； at the other end of the
social scale； conditions which greatly facilitate the concentration of
disproportionate wealth in a few hands。
Addition： The lowest subsistence level； that of a rabble of paupers； is fixed automatically； but
the minimum varies considerably in different countries。 In England； even the very poorest believe
that they have rights； this is different from what satisfies the poor in other countries。 Poverty in itself
does not make men into a rabble； a rabble is created only when there is joined to poverty a
disposition of mind； an inner indignation against the rich； against society； against the government；
&c。 A further consequence of this attitude is that through their dependence on chance men
become frivolous and idle； like the Neapolitan lazzaroni for example。 In this way there is born in
the rabble the evil of lacking self…respect enough to secure subsistence by its own labour and yet
at the same time of claiming to receive subsistence as its right。 Against nature man can claim no
right； but once society is established； poverty immediately takes the form of a wrong done to one
class by another。 The important question of how poverty is to be abolished is one of the most
disturbing problems which agitate modem society。
§ 245。
When the masses begin to decline into poverty； （a） the burden of maintaining
them at their ordinary standard of living might be directly laid on the wealthier
classes； or they might receive the means of livelihood directly from other public
sources of wealth （e。g。 from the endowments of rich hospitals； monasteries； and
other foundations）。 In either case； however； the needy would receive subsistence
directly； not by means of their work； and this would violate the principle of civil
society and the feeling of individual independence and self…respect in its individual
members。 （b） As an alternative； they might be given subsistence indirectly through
being given work； i。e。 the opportunity to work。 In this event the volume of
production would be increased； but the evil consists precisely in an excess of
production and in the lack of a proportionate number of consumers who are
themselves also producers； and thus it is simply intensified by both of the
methods （a） and （b） by which it is sought to alleviate it。 It hence becomes
apparent that despite an excess of wealth civil society is not rich enough； i。e。 its
own resources are insufficient to check excessive poverty and the creation of a
penurious rabble。
Remark： In the example of England we may study these phenomena on a large scale and also in
particular the results of poor…rates； immense foundations； unlimited private beneficence； and above
all the abolition of the Guild Corporations。 In Britain； particularly in Scotland； the most direct
measure against poverty and especially against the loss of shame and self…respect — the subjective
bases of society — as well as against laziness and extravagance； &c。； the begetters of the rabble；
has turned out to be to leave the poor to their fate and instruct them to beg in the streets。
§ 246。
This inner dialectic of civil society thus drives it — or at any rate drives a specific
civil society — to push beyond its own limits and seek markets； and so its
necessary means of subsistence； in other lands which are either deficient in the
goods it has over…produced； or else generally backward in industry； &c。
§ 247。
The principle of family life is dependence on the soil； on land； terra firma。
Similarly； the natural element for industry； animating its outward movement； is
the sea。 Since the passion for gain involves risk； industry though bent on gain yet
lifts itself above it； instead of remaining rooted to the soil and the limited circle of
civil life with its pleasures and desires； it embraces the element of flux； danger；
and destruction。 Further； the sea is the greatest means of communication； and
trade by sea creates commercial connections between distant countries and so
relations involving contractual rights。 At the same time； commerce of this kind is
the most potent instrument of culture； and through it trade acquires its
significance in the history of the world。
Rivers are not natural boundaries of separation； which is what they 。have been
accounted to be in modem times。 On the contrary； it is truer to say that they； and
the sea likewise； link men together。 Horace is wrong when he says：
deus abscidit
prudens Oceano dissociabili
tetras。
Remark： The proof of this lies not merely in the fact that the basins of rivers are Inhabited by a
single clan or tribe； but also； for example； in the ancient bonds between Greece； Ionia； and Magna
Graecia； between Brittany and Britain； between Denmark and Norway； Sweden； Finland； Livonia；
&c。； bonds； further； which are especially striking in contrast with the comparatively slight
intercourse between the inhabitants of the littoral and those of the hinterland。 To realise what an
instrument of culture lies in the link with the sea； consider countries where industry flourishes and
contrast their relation to the sea with that of countries which have eschewed sea…faring and which；
like Egypt and India； have become stagnant and in the most frightful and scandalous superstition。
Notice also how ；all great progressive peoples press onward to the sea。
§ 248。
This far…flung connecting link affords the means for the colonising activity —
sporadic or systematic — to which mature civil society is driven and by which it
supplies to a part of its population a return to life on the family basis in a new
land and so also supplies itself with a new demand and field for its industry
Addition： Civil society is thus driven to found colonies。 Increase of population alone has this
effect； but it is due in particular to the appearance of a number of people who cannot secure the
satisfaction of their needs by their own labour once production rises above the requirements of
consumers。 Sporadic colonisation is particularly characteristic of Germany。 The emigrants
withdraw to America or Russia and remain there with no home ties； and so prove useless to their
native land。 The second and entirely different type of colonisation is the systematic； the state
undertakes it； is aware of the proper method of carrying it out and regulates it accordingly。 This
type was common amongst the ancients； particularly the Greeks。 Hard work was not the business
of the citizens in Greece； since their energy was directed rather to public affairs。 So if the
population increased to such an extent that there might be difficulty in feeding it； the young people
would be sent away to a new district； sometimes specifically chosen； sometimes left to chance
discovery。 In modern times； colonists have not been allowed the same rights as those left at home；
and the result of this situation has been wars and finally independence； as may be seen in the
history of the English and Spanish colonies。 Colonial independence proves to be of the greatest
advantage to the mother country； just as the emancipation of slaves turns out to the greatest
advantage of the owners。
§ 249。
While the public authority must also undertake the higher directive function of
providing for the interests which lead beyond the borders of its society （see §
246）； its primary purpose is to actualise and maintain the universal contained
within the particularity of civil society； and its control takes the form of an
external system and organisation for the protection and security of particular ends