moments； still ideal moments； whose true ground is the state； although it is from them that the state
springs。
The philosophic proof of the concept of the state is this development of ethical life from its
immediate phase through civil society； the phase of division； to the state； which then reveals itself
as the true ground of these phases。 A proof in philosophic science can only be a development of
this kind。
Since the state appears as a result in the advance of the philosophic concept through displaying
itself as the true ground ＇of the earlier phases＇； that show of mediation is now cancelled and the
state has become directly present before us。 Actually； therefore； the state as such is not so much
the result as the beginning。 It is within the state that the family is first developed into civil society；
and it is the Idea of the state itself which disrupts itself into these two moments。 Through the
development of civil society； the substance of ethical life acquires its infinite form； which contains in
itself these two moments： （1） infinite differentiation down to the inward experience of independent
self…consciousness； and （2） the form of universality involved in education； the form of thought
whereby mind is objective and actual to itself as an organic totality in laws and institutions which
are its will in terms of thought。
Third Part： Ethical Life
iii。 The State
A： Constitutional Law B： International Law C： World
History
§ 257。
The state is the actuality of the ethical Idea。 It is ethical mind qua the substantial
will manifest and revealed to itself； knowing and thinking itself； accomplishing
what it knows and in so far as it knows it。 The state exists immediately in custom；
mediately in individual self…consciousness； knowledge； and activity； while
self…consciousness in virtue of its sentiment towards the state； finds in the state；
as its essence and the end…product of its activity； its substantive freedom。
Remark： The Penates are inward gods； gods of the underworld； the mind of a nation （Athene
for instance） is the divine； knowing and willing itself。 Family piety is feeling； ethical behaviour
directed by feeling； political virtue is the willing of the absolute end in terms of thought。
§ 258。
The state is absolutely rational inasmuch as it is the actuality of the substantial will
which it possesses in the particular self…consciousness once that consciousness
has been raised to consciousness of its universality。 This substantial unity is an
absolute unmoved end in itself； in which freedom comes into its supreme right。
On the other hand this final end has supreme right against the individual； whose
supreme duty is to be a member of the state。
Remark： If the state is confused with civil society； and if its specific end is laid down as the
security and protection of property and personal freedom； then the interest of the individuals as
such becomes the ultimate end of their association； and it follows that membership of the state is
something optional。 But the state's relation to the individual is quite different from this。 Since the
state is mind objectified； it is only as one of its members that the individual himself has objectivity；
genuine individuality； and an ethical life。 Unification pure and simple is the true content and aim of
the individual； and the individual's destiny is the living of a universal life。 His further particular
satisfaction； activity and mode of conduct have this substantive and universally valid life as their
starting point and their result。
Rationality； taken generally and in the abstract； consists in the thorough…going unity of the universal
and the single。 Rationality； concrete in the state； consists （a） so far as its content is concerned； in
the unity of objective freedom （i。e。 freedom of the universal or substantial will） and subjective
freedom （i。e。 freedom of everyone in his knowing and in his volition of particular ends）； and
consequently； （b） so far as its form is concerned； in self…determining action on laws and principles
which are thoughts and so universal。 This Idea is the absolutely eternal and necessary being of
mind。
But if we ask what is or has been the historical origin of the state in general； still more if we ask
about the origin of any particular state； of its rights and institutions； or again if we inquire whether
the state originally arose out of patriarchal conditions or out of fear or trust； or out of
Corporations； &c。； or finally if we ask in what light the basis of the state's rights has been
conceived and consciously established； whether this basis has been supposed to be positive divine
right； or contract； custom； &c。 … all these questions are no concern of the Idea of the state。 We are
here dealing exclusively with the philosophic science of the state； and from that point of view all
these things are mere appearance and therefore matters for history。 So far as the authority of any
existing state has anything to do with reasons； these reasons are culled from the forms of the law
authoritative within it。
The philosophical treatment of these topics is concerned only with their inward side； with the
thought of their concept。 The merit of Rousseau's contribution to the search for this concept is that；
by adducing the will as the principle of the state； he is adducing a principle which has thought both
for its form and its content； a principle indeed which is thinking itself； not a principle； like
gregarious instinct； for instance； or divine authority； which has thought as its form only。
Unfortunately； however； as Fichte did later； he takes the will only in a determinate form as the
individual will； and he regards the universal will not as the absolutely rational element in the will； but
only as a 'general' will which proceeds out of this individual will as out of a conscious will。 The
result is that he reduces the union of individuals in the state to a contract and therefore to
something based on their arbitrary wills； their opinion； and their capriciously given express consent；
and abstract reasoning proceeds to draw the logical inferences which destroy the absolutely divine
principle of the state； together with its majesty and absolute authority。 For this reason； when these
abstract conclusions came into power； they afforded for the first time in human history the
prodigious spectacle of the overthrow of the constitution of a great actual state and its complete
reconstruction ab initio on the basis of pure thought alone； after the destruction of all existing and
given material。 The will of its re…founders was to give it what they alleged was a purely rational
basis； but it was only abstractions that were being used； the Idea was lacking； and the experiment
ended in the maximum of frightfulness and terror。
Confronted with the claims made for the individual will； we must remember the fundamental
conception that the objective will is rationality implicit or in conception； whether it be recognised
or not by individuals； whether their whims be deliberately for it or not。 We must remember that its
opposite； i。e。 knowing and willing； or subjective freedom （the only thing contained in the principle
of the individual will） comprises only one moment； and therefore a one…sided moment； of the Idea
of the rational will； i。e。 of the will which is rational solely because what it is implicitly； that it also is
explicitly。
The opposite to thinking of the state as something to be known and apprehended as explicitly
rational is taking external appearances … i。e。 contingencies such as distress； need for protection；
force； riches； &c。 … not as moments in the state's historical development； but as its substance。 Here
again what constitutes the guiding thread of discovery is the individual in isolation … not； however；
even so much as the thought of this individuality； but instead only empirical individuals； with
attention focused on their accidental characteristics； their strength and weakness； riches and
poverty； &c。 This ingenious idea of ignoring the absolute infinity and rationality in the state and
excluding thought from apprehension of its inward nature has assuredly never been put forward in
such an unadulterated form as in Herr von Haller's Restauration der Staatswissenschaft。 I say
'unadulterated'； because in all other attempts to grasp the essence of the state； no matter on what
one…sided or superficial principles； this very intention of comprehending the state rationally has
brought with it thoughts； i。e。 universal determinations。 Herr von Haller； however； with his eyes
open； has not merely renounced the rational material of which the state consists； as well as the
form of thought； but he has even gone on with passionate fervour to inveigh against the form and
the material so set aside。 Part of what Herr von Haller assures us is the 'widespread' effect of his
principles。 This Restauration undoubtedly owes to the fact that； in his exposition； he has
deliberately dispensed with thought altogether； and has deliberately kept his whole book all of a
piece with its l