cut consciousness and in accordance with principles。 Now； as I said earlier； religion has the truth
as its universal subject…matter； but it possesses it only as a given content which has not been
apprehended in its fundamental characteristics as a result of thinking and the use of concepts。
Similarly； the relation of the individual to this subject…matter is an obligation grounded on authority；
while the 'witness of his own spirit and heart'； i。e。 that wherein the moment of freedom resides； is
faith and feeling。 It is philosophic insight which sees that while church and state differ in form； they
do not stand opposed in content； for truth and rationality are the content of both。 Thus when the
church begins to teach doctrines （though there are and have been some churches with a ritual only；
and others in which ritual is the chief thing； while doctrine and a more educated consciousness are
only secondary）； and when these doctrines touch on objective principles； on thoughts of the ethical
and the rational； 'then their expression eo ipso brings the church into the domain of the state。 In
contrast with the church's faith and authority in matters affecting ethical principles； rightness； laws；
institutions； in contrast with the church's subjective conviction； the state is that which knows。 Its
principle is such that its content is in essence no longer clothed with the form of feeling and faith
but is determinate thought。
If the content of absolute truth appears in the form of religion as a particular content； i。e。 as the
doctrines peculiar to the church as a religious community； then these doctrines remain out of the
reach of the state （in Protestantism they are out of the reach of priests too because； as there is no
laity there； so there is no priesthood to be an exclusive depository of church doctrine）。 Since
ethical principles and the organisation of the state in general are drawn into the domain of religion
and not only may； but also should； be established by reference thereto； this reference gives
religious credentials to the state itself。 On the other hand； however； the state retains the right and
the form of self…conscious； objective； rationality； the right to make this form count and to maintain
it against pretensions springing from truth in a subjective dress； no matter how such truth may
girdle itself with certitude and authority。
The state is universal in form； a form whose essential principle is thought。 This explains why it was
in the state that freedom of thought and science had their origin。 It was a church； on the other
hand； which burnt Giordano Bruno； forced Galileo to recant on his knees his exposition of the
Copernican view of the solar system； and so forth。
Footnote： When Galileo published the discoveries' about the phases of Venus； &c。； which he had made
with the aid of the telescope； 'he showed that they incontestably proved the motion of the earth。 But this idea
of the motion of the earth was declared heretical by an assembly of Cardinals； and Galileo； its most famous
advocate； was haled before the Inquisition and compelled to recant it； under pain of severe imprisonment。 One
of the strongest of passions is the love of truth in a man of genius。 。。。 Convinced of the motion of the earth as a
result of his own observations； Galileo meditated a long while on a new work in which he had resolved to
develop all the proofs in its favour。 But in order at the same time to escape from the persecution of which
otherwise he would inevitably have been the victim； he hit upon the device of expounding them in the form of
dialogues between three speakers。。。。 It is obvious enough in them that the advantage lies with the advocate of
the Copernican system； but since Galileo did not decide between the speakers； and gave as much weight as
possible to the objections raised by the partisans of Ptolemy； he might well have expected to be left to enjoy
undisturbed the peace to which his advanced age and his labours had entitled him。。。。 In his seventieth year he
was haled once more before the tribunal of the Inquisition。。。。 He was imprisoned and required to recant his
opinions a second time under threat of the penalty fixed for a relapse into heresy。 。。。 He was made to sign an
abjuration in the following terms： 〃I； Galileo； appearing in person before the court in my seventieth year；
kneeling； and with my eyes on the holy Gospels which I hold in my hands； abjure； damn； and execrate with my
whole heart and true belief the absurd； false； and heretical doctrine of the motion of the earth。。 。 。〃 What a
spectacle！ An aged； venerable man； famous throughout a long life exclusively devoted to the study of nature；
abjuring on his knees； against the witness of his own conscience； the truth which he had demonstrated so
convincingly！ By the judgement of the Inquisition he was condemned to perpetual imprisonment。 A year later
he was set at liberty through the intercession of the Grand Duke of Florence。 。 。 。 He died in 1642。 。 。 。 Europe
mourned his loss。 It had been enlightened by his labours and was exasperated by the judgement passed by a
detested tribunal on a man of his greatness。' （Laplace： Exposition du système du monde； Book V； chap。 4。）
Remark： Science too； therefore； has its place on the side of the state since it has one element； its
form； in common with the state； and its aim is knowledge； knowledge of objective truth and
rationality in terms of thought。 Such knowledge may； of course； fall from the heights of science into
opinion and deductive argumentation； and； turning its attention to ethical matters and the
organisation of the state； set itself against their basic principles。 And it may perhaps do this while
making for this opining as if it were reason and the right of subjective self…consciousness … the
same pretentious claim as the church makes for its own sphere； the claim； namely； to be free from
restraint in its opinions and convictions。
This principle of the subjectivity of knowing has been dealt with above （see Remark to § 140） … It
is here only necessary to add a note on the twofold attitude of the state to this opining。 On the one
hand； in so far as opining is mere opining； a purely subjective matter； it is without any genuine
inherent force or power； plume itself as it may； and from this point of view the state may be as
totally indifferent to it as the painter who sticks to the three primary colours on his palette is
indifferent to the academic wisdom which tells him there are seven。 On the other hand； however；
when this opining of bad principles embodies itself in a general organisation corrosive of the actual
order； the state has to set its face against it and protect objective truth and the principles of ethical
life （and it must do the same in face of the formulae of unconditioned subjectivity if these have
proposed to take the starting point of science as their basis； and turn state educational institutions
against the state by encouraging them to make against it claims as pretentious as those of a
church）； while； vice versa； in face of a church claiming unrestricted and unconditional authority； the
state has in general to make good the formal right of self…consciousness to its own insight； its own
conviction； and； in short； its own thought of what is to hold good as objective truth。
Mention may also be made of the 'unity of state and church' … a favourite topic of modern
discussion and held up by some as the highest of ideals。 While state and church are essentially one
in truth of principle and disposition； it is no less essential that； despite this unity； the distinction
between their forms of consciousness should be externalised as a distinction between their special
modes of existence。 This often desired unity of church and state is found under oriental
despotisms； but an oriental despotism is not a state； or at any rate not the self…conscious form of
state which is alone worthy of mind； the form which is organically developed and where there are
rights and a free ethical life。
Further； if the state is to come into existence as the self…knowing ethical actuality of mind； it is
essential that its form should be distinct from that of authority and faith。 But this distinction emerges
only in so far as the church is subjected to inward divisions。 It is only thereafter that the state； in
contrast with the particular sects； has attained to universality of thought … its formal principle … and
is bringing this universality into existence。 （In order to understand this； it is necessary to know not
only what universality is in itself； but also what its existence is。 Hence so far from its being or its
having been a misfortune for the state that the church is disunited； it is only as a result of that
disunion that the state has been able to reach its appointed end as a self…consciously rational and
ethical organisation。 Moreover； this disunion is the best piece of good fortune which could have
befallen either the church or thought so far as the freedom and rationality of either is concerned）。
Addition： The state is actual； and its actuality consists in this； that the interest of the whole is
realised in and through particula