that war be not waged against domestic institutions； against the peace of family
and private life； or against persons in their private capacity。
Addition： Modern wars are therefore humanely waged； and person is not set over against
person in hatred。 At most； personal enmities appear in the vanguard； but in the main body of the
army hostility is something vague and gives place to each side's respect for the duty of the other。
§ 339。
Apart from this； relations between states （e。g。 in war…time； reciprocal agreements
about taking prisoners； in peace…time； concessions of rights to subjects of other
states for the purpose of private trade and intercourse； &c。） depend principally
upon the customs of nations； custom being the inner universality of behaviour
maintained in all circumstances。
Addition： The European peoples form a family in accordance with the universal principle
underlying their legal codes； their customs； and their civilisation。 This principle has modified their
international conduct accordingly in a state of affairs ＇i。e。 war＇ otherwise dominated by the mutual
infliction of evils。 The relations of state to state are uncertain； and there is no Praetor available to
adjust them。 The only higher judge is the universal absolute mind； the world mind。
§ 340。
It is as particular entities that states enter into relations with one another。 Hence
their relations are on the largest scale a maelstrom of external contingency and the
inner particularity of passions； private interests and selfish ends； abilities and
virtues； vices； force； and wrong。 All these whirl together； and in their vortex the
ethical whole itself； the autonomy of the state； is exposed to contingency。 The
principles of the national minds are wholly restricted on account of their
particularity； for it is in this particularity that； as existent individuals； they have
their objective actuality and their self…consciousness。 Their deeds and destinies in
their reciprocal relations to one another are the dialectic of the finitude of these
minds； and out of it arises the universal mind； the mind of the world； free from all
restriction； producing itself as that which exercises its right — and its right is the
highest right of all — over these finite minds in the 'history of the world which is
the world's court of judgement'。
C。 World History
§ 341。
The element in which the universal mind exists in art is intuition and imagery； in
religion feeling and representative thinking； in philosophy pure freedom of
thought。 In world history this element is the actuality of mind in its whole
compass of internality and externality alike。 World history is a court of judgement
because in its absolute universality； the particular … i。e。 the Penates； civil society；
and the national minds in their variegated actuality is present as only ideal； and the
movement of mind in this element is the exhibition of that fact。
§ 342。
Further； world history is not the verdict of mere might； i。e。 the abstract and
non…rational inevitability of a blind destiny。 On the contrary； since mind is
implicitly and actually reason； and reason is explicit to itself in mind as
knowledge； world history is the necessary development； out of the concept of
mind's freedom alone； of the moments of reason and so of the self…consciousness
and freedom of mind。 This development is the interpretation and actualisation of
the universal mind。
§ 343。
The history of mind is its own act。 Mind is only what it does； and its act is to
make itself the object of its own consciousness。 In history its act is to gain
consciousness of itself as mind； to apprehend itself in its interpretation of itself to
itself。 This apprehension is its being and its principle； and the completion of
apprehension at one stage is at the same time the rejection of that stage and its
transition to a higher。 To use abstract phraseology； the mind apprehending this
apprehension anew； or in other words returning to itself again out of its rejection
of this lower stage of apprehension； is the mind of the stage higher than that on
which it stood in its earlier apprehension。
Remark： The question of the perfectibility and Education of the Human Race arises here。
Those who have maintained this perfectibility have divined something of the nature of mind；
something of the fact that it is its nature to have gnothi seanton as the law of its being； and； since
it apprehends that which it is； to have a form higher than that which constituted its mere being。 But
to those who reject this doctrine； mind has remained an empty word； and history a superficial play
of casual； so…called 'merely human'； strivings and passions。 Even if； in connection with history； they
speak of Providence and the plan of Providence； and so express a faith in a higher power； their
ideas remain empty because they expressly declare that for them the plan of Providence is
inscrutable and incomprehensible。
§ 344。
In the course of this work of the world mind； states； nations； and individuals arise
animated by their particular determinate principle which has its interpretation and
actuality in their constitutions and in the whole range of their life and condition。
While their consciousness is limited to these and they are absorbed in their
mundane interests； they are all the time the unconscious tools and organs of the
world mind at work within them。 The shapes which they take pass away； while
the absolute mind prepares and works out its transition to its next higher stage。
§ 345。
Justice and virtue； wrongdoing； power and vice； talents and their achievements；
passions strong and weak； guilt and innocence； grandeur in individual and national
life； autonomy； fortune and misfortune of states and individuals； all these have
their specific significance and worth in the field of known actuality； therein they
are judged and therein they have their partial； though only partial justification。
World…history； however； is above the point of view from which these things
matter。 Each of its stages is the presence of a necessary moment in the Idea of
the world mind； and that moment attains its absolute right in that stage。 The
nation whose life embodies this moment secures its good fortune and fame； and
its deeds are brought to fruition。
§ 346。
History is mind clothing itself with the form of events or the immediate actuality
of nature。 The stages of its development are therefore presented as immediate
natural principles。 These； because they are natural； are a plurality external to one
another； and they are present therefore in such a way that each of them is
assigned to one nation in the external form of its geographical and anthropological
conditions。
§ 347。
The nation to which is ascribed a moment of the Idea in the form of a natural
principle is entrusted with giving complete effect to it in the advance of the
self…developing self…consciousness of the world mind。 This nation is dominant in
world history during this one epoch； and it is only once （see § 345） that it can
make its hour strike。 In contrast with this its absolute right of being the vehicle of
this present stage in the world mind's development； the minds of the other nations
are without rights； and they； along with those whose hour has struck already；
count no longer in world history。
Remark： The history of a single world…historical nation contains （a） the development of its
principle from its latent embryonic stage until it blossoms into the self…conscious freedom of ethical
life and presses in upon world history； and （b） the period of its decline and fall； since it is its
decline and fall that signalises the emergence in it of a higher principle as the pure negative of its
own。 When this happens； mind passes over into the new principle and so marks out another nation
for world…historical significance。 After this period； the declining nation has lost the interest of the
absolute； it may indeed absorb the higher principle positively and begin building its life on it； but the
principle is only like an adopted child； not like a relative to whom its ties are immanently vital and
vigorous。 Perhaps it loses its autonomy； or it may still exist； or drag out its existence； as a
particular state or a group of states and involve itself without rhyme or reason in manifold
enterprises at home and battles abroad。
§ 348。
All actions； including world…historical actions； culminate with individuals as
subjects giving actuality to the substantial （see Remark to § 279）。 They are the
living instruments of what is in substance the deed of the world mind and they are
therefore directly at one with that deed though it is concealed from them and is
not their aim and object （see § 344）。 For the deeds of the world mind； therefore；
they receive no honour or thanks either fr