ater from oppression and exaction。 The king will desire an useless war for his glory； or a parc…aux…cerfs for his pleasure。 The nobles will demand monopolies and lettres…de…cachet。 In proportion as the number of governors is increased the evil is diminished。 There are fewer to contribute； and more to receive。 The dividend which each can obtain of the public plunder becomes less and less tempting。 But the interests of the subjects and the rulers never absolutely coincide till the subjects themselves become the rulers； that is； till the government be either immediately or mediately democratical。
But this is not enough。 〃Will without power；〃 said the sagacious Casimir to Milor Beefington； 〃is like children playing at soldiers。〃 The people will always be desirous to promote their own interests； but it may be doubted； whether； in any community； they were ever sufficiently educated to understand them。 Even in this island； where the multitude have long been better informed than in any other part of Europe； the rights of the many have generally been asserted against themselves by the patriotism of the few。 Free trade； one of the greatest blessings which a government can confer on a people； is in almost every country unpopular。 It may be well doubted； whether a liberal policy with regard to our commercial relations would find any support from a parliament elected by universal suffrage。 The republicans on the other side of the Atlantic have recently adopted regulations of which the consequences will； before long； show us；
〃How nations sink； by darling schemes oppressed； When vengeance listens to the fool's request。〃
The people are to be governed for their own good； and； that they may be governed for their own good； they must not be governed by their own ignorance。 There are countries in which it would be as absurd to establish popular government as to abolish all the restraints in a school； or to untie all the strait…waistcoats in a madhouse。
Hence it may be concluded that the happiest state of society is that in which supreme power resides in the whole body of a well… informed people。 This is an imaginary； perhaps an unattainable； state of things。 Yet； in some measure； we may approximate to it； and he alone deserves the name of a great statesman； whose principle it is to extend the power of the people in proportion to the extent of their knowledge； and to give them every facility for obtaining such a degree of knowledge as may render it safe to trust them with absolute power。 In the mean time； it is dangerous to praise or condemn constitutions in the abstract； since； from the despotism of St Petersburg to the democracy of Washington； there is scarcely a form of government which might not； at least in some hypothetical case； be the best possible。
If； however； there be any form of government which in all ages and all nations has always been； and must always be； pernicious； it is certainly that which Mr Mitford； on his usual principle of being wiser than all the rest of the world； has taken under his especial patronagepure oligarchy。 This is closely； and indeed inseparably； connected with another of his eccentric tastes； a marked partiality for Lacedaemon； and a dislike of Athens。 Mr Mitford's book has； I suspect； rendered these sentiments in some degree popular； and I shall； therefore； examine them at some length。
The shades in the Athenian character strike the eye more rapidly than those in the Lacedaemonian： not because they are darker； but because they are on a brighter ground。 The law of ostracism is an instance of this。 Nothing can be conceived more odious than the practice of punishing a citizen； simply and professedly； for his eminence；and nothing in the institutions of Athens is more frequently or more justly censured。 Lacedaemon was free from this。 And why？ Lacedaemon did not need it。 Oligarchy is an ostracism of itself；an ostracism not occasional； but permanent； not dubious； but certain。 Her laws prevented the development of merit instead of attacking its maturity。 They did not cut down the plant in its high and palmy state； but cursed the soil with eternal sterility。 In spite of the law of ostracism； Athens produced； within a hundred and fifty years； the greatest public men that ever existed。 Whom had Sparta to ostracise？ She produced； at most； four eminent men； Brasidas； Gylippus； Lysander； and Agesilaus。 Of these； not one rose to distinction within her jurisdiction。 It was only when they escaped from the region within which the influence of aristocracy withered everything good and noble； it was only when they ceased to be Lacedaemonians； that they became great men。 Brasidas； among the cities of Thrace； was strictly a democratical leader； the favourite minister and general of the people。 The same may be said of Gylippus； at Syracuse。 Lysander； in the Hellespont； and Agesilaus； in Asia； were liberated for a time from the hateful restraints imposed by the constitution of Lycurgus。 Both acquired fame abroad； and both returned to be watched and depressed at home。 This is not peculiar to Sparta。 Oligarchy； wherever it has existed； has always stunted the growth of genius。 Thus it was at Rome； till about a century before the Christian era： we read of abundance of consuls and dictators who won battles； and enjoyed triumphs； but we look in vain for a single man of the first order of intellect；for a Pericles； a Demosthenes； or a Hannibal。 The Gracchi formed a strong democratical party； Marius revived it； the foundations of the old aristocracy were shaken； and two generations fertile in really great men appeared。
Venice is a still more remarkable instance： in her history we see nothing but the state； aristocracy had destroyed every seed of genius and virtue。 Her dominion was like herself； lofty and magnificent； but founded on filth and weeds。 God forbid that there should ever again exist a powerful and civilised state； which； after existing through thirteen hundred eventful years； should not bequeath to mankind the memory of one great name or one generous action。
Many writers； and Mr Mitford among the number； have admired the stability of the Spartan institutions； in fact； there is little to admire； and less to approve。 Oligarchy is the weakest and the most stable of governments； and it is stable because it is weak。 It has a sort of valetudinarian longevity； it lives in the balance of Sanctorius； it takes no exercise； it exposes itself to no accident； it is seized with an hypochondriac alarm at every new sensation； it trembles at every breath； it lets blood for every inflammation： and thus； without ever enjoying a day of health or pleasure； drags on its existence to a doting and debilitated old age。
The Spartans purchased for their government a prolongation of its existence by the sacrifice of happiness at home and dignity abroad。 They cringed to the powerful； they trampled on the weak； they massacred their helots； they betrayed their allies； they contrived to be a day too late for the battle of Marathon； they attempted to avoid the battle of Salamis； they suffered the Athenians； to whom they owed their lives and liberties； to be a second time driven from their country by the Persians； that they might finish their own fortifications on the Isthmus； they attempted to take advantage of the distress to which exertions in their cause had reduced their preservers； in order to make them their slaves； they strove to prevent those who had abandoned their walls to defend them； from rebuilding them to defend themselves； they commenced the Peloponnesian war in violation of their engagements with Athens； they abandoned it in violation of their engagements with their allies； they gave up to the sword whole cities which had placed themselves under their protection； they bartered； for advantages confined to themselves； the interest； the freedom； and the lives of those who had served them most faithfully； they took with equal complacency； and equal infamy； the stripes of Elis and the bribes of Persia； they never showed either resentment or gratitude； they abstained from no injury； and they revenged none。 Above all； they looked on a citizen who served them well as their deadliest enemy。 These are the arts which protract the existence of government。
Nor were the domestic institutions of Lacedaemon less hateful or less contemptible than her foreign policy。 A perpetual interference with every part of the system of human life； a constant struggle against nature and reason； characterised all her laws。 To violate even prejudices which have taken deep root in the minds of a people is scarcely expedient； to think of extirpating natural appetites and passions is frantic： the external symptoms may be occasionally repressed； but the feeling still exists； and； debarred from its natural objects； preys on the disordered mind and body of its victim。 Thus it is in convents…thus it is among ascetic sectsthus it was among the Lacedaemonians。 Hence arose that madness； or violence approaching to madness； which； in spite of every external restraint； often appeared among the most distinguished citizens of Sparta。 Cleomenes terminated his career of raving cruelty by cutting himself to pieces。 Pausanias seems