Empire amounted to； therefore； was an agglomeration of provinces； held together by the personal prestige of a young monarch。
Since the mother country still held parts of northern Brazil； the Emperor entrusted the energetic Cochrane； who had performed such valiant service for Chile and Peru； with the task of expelling the foreign soldiery。 When this had been accomplished and a republican outbreak in the same region had been suppressed； the more difficult task of satisfying all parties by a constitution had to be undertaken。 There were partisans of monarchy and advocates of republicanism； men of conservative and of liberal sympathies； disagreements； also； between the Brazilians and the native Portuguese residents were frequent。 So far as possible Pedro desired to meet popular desires； and yet without imposing too many limitations on the monarchy itself。 But in the assembly called to draft the constitution the liberal members made a determined effort to introduce republican forms。 Pedro thereupon dissolved that body and in 1826 promulgated a constitution of his own。
The popularity of the Emperor thereafter soon began to wane； partly because of the scandalous character of his private life； and partly because he declined to observe constitutional restrictions and chose his ministers at will。 His insistent war in Portugal to uphold the claims of his daughter to the throne betrayed； or seemed to betray； dynastic ambitions。 His inability to hold Uruguay as a Brazilian province； and his continued retention of foreign soldiers who had been employed in the struggle with the Argentine Confederation； for the apparent purpose of quelling possible insurrections in the future； bred much discontent。 So also did the restraints he laid upon the press； which had been infected by the liberal movements in neighboring republics。 When he failed to subdue these outbreaks； his rule became all the more discredited。 Thereupon； menaced by a dangerous uprising at Rio de Janeiro in 1831； he abdicated the throne in favor of his son； Pedro； then five years of age； and set sail for Portugal。
Under the influence of Great Britain the small European mother country had in 1825 recognized the independence of its big transatlantic dominion； but it was not until 1836 that the Cortes of Spain authorized the Crown to enter upon negotiations looking to the same action in regard to the eleven republics which had sprung out of its colonial domain。 Even then many years elapsed before the mother country acknowledged the independence of them all。
CHAPTER V。 THE AGE OF THE DICTATORS
Independence without liberty and statehood without respect for law are phrases which sum up the situation in Spanish America after the failure of Bolivar's 〃great design。〃 The outcome was a collection of crude republics； racked by internal dissension and torn by mutual jealousypatrias bobas； or 〃foolish fatherlands；〃 as one of their own writers has termed them。
Now that the bond of unity once supplied by Spain had been broken； the entire region which had been its continental domain in America dissolved awhile into its elements。 The Spanish language； the traditions and customs of the dominant class； and a 〃republican〃 form of government； were practically the sole ties which remained。 Laws； to be sure； had been enacted； providing for the immediate or gradual abolition of negro slavery and for an improvement in the status of the Indian and half…caste； but the bulk of the inhabitants； as in colonial times； remained outside of the body politic and social。 Though the so…called 〃constitutions〃 might confer upon the colored inhabitants all the privileges and immunities of citizens if they could read and write； and even a chance to hold office if they could show possession of a sufficient income or of a professional title of some sort； their usual inability to do either made their privileges illusory。 Their only share in public concerns lay in performing military service at the behest of their superiors。 Even where the language of the constitutions did not exclude the colored inhabitants directly or indirectly； practical authority was exercised by dictators who played the autocrat； or by 〃liberators〃 who aimed at the enjoyment of that function themselves。
Not all the dictators； however； were selfish tyrants； nor all the liberators mere pretenders。 Disturbed conditions bred by twenty years of warfare； antique methods of industry； a backward commerce； inadequate means of communication； and a population ignorant； superstitious； and scant； made a strong ruler more or less indispensable。 Whatever his official designation； the dictator was the logical successor of the Spanish viceroy or captain general； but without the sense of responsibility or the legal restraint of either。 These circumstances account for that curious political phase in the development of the Spanish American nationsthe presidential despotism。
On the other hand； the men who denounced oppression； unscrupulousness； and venality； and who in rhetorical pronunciamentos urged the 〃people〃 to overthrow the dictators； were often actuated by motives of patriotism； even though they based their declarations on assumptions and assertions； rather than on principles and facts。 Not infrequently a liberator of this sort became 〃provisional president〃 until he himself； or some person of his choice； could be elected 〃constitutional president〃two other institutions more or less peculiar to Spanish America。
In an atmosphere of political theorizing mingled with ambition for personal advancement； both leaders and followers were professed devotees of constitutions。 No people； it was thought； could maintain a real republic and be a true democracy if they did not possess a written constitution。 The longer this was； the more precise its definition of powers and liberties； the more authentic the republic and the more genuine the democracy was thought to be。 In some countries the notion was carried still farther by an insistence upon frequent changes in the fundamental law or in the actual form of government； not so much to meet imperative needs as to satisfy a zest for experimentation or to suit the whims of mercurial temperaments。 The congresses； constituent assemblies； and the like； which drew these instruments； were supposed to be faithful reproductions of similar bodies abroad and to represent the popular will。 In fact； however； they were substantially colonial cabildos； enlarged into the semblance of a legislature； intent upon local or personal concerns； and lacking any national consciousness。 In any case the members were apt to be creatures of a republican despot or else delegates of politicians or petty factions。
Assuming that the leaders had a fairly clear conception of what they wanted； even if the mass of their adherents did not； it is possible to aline the factions or parties somewhat as follows： on the one hand； the unitary； the military； the clerical； the conservative； and the moderate； on the other；the federalist； the civilian； the lay； the liberal； and the radical。 Interspersed among them were the advocates of a presidential or congressional system like that of the United States； the upholders of a parliamentary regime like that of European nations； and the supporters of methods of government of a more experimental kind。 Broadly speaking； the line of cleavage was made by opinions； concerning the form of government and by convictions regarding the relations of Church and State。 These opinions were mainly a product of revolutionary experience； these convictions； on the other hand； were a bequest from colonial times。
The Unitaries wished to have a system of government modeled upon that of France。 They wanted the various provinces made into administrative districts over which the national authority should exercise full sway。 Their direct opponents； the Federalists； resembled to some extent the Antifederalists rather than the party bearing the former title in the earlier history of the United States； but even here an exact analogy fails。 They did not seek to have the provinces enjoy local self…government or to have perpetuated the traditions of a sort of municipal home rule handed down from the colonial cabildos； so much as to secure the recognition of a number of isolated villages or small towns as sovereign stateswhich meant turning them over as fiefs to their local chieftains。 Federalism； therefore； was the Spanish American expression for a feudalism upheld by military lordlets and their retainers。
Among the measures of reform introduced by one republic or another during the revolutionary period； abolition of the Inquisition had been one of the foremost； otherwise comparatively little was done to curb the influence of the Church。 Indeed the earlier constitutions regularly contained articles declaring Roman Catholicism the sole legal faith as well as the religion of the state； and safeguarding in other respects its prestige in the community。 Here was an institution； wealthy； proud； and influential； which declined to yield its ancient prerogatives and privileges and to that end relied upon the support of clericals and conservatives who disliked innovations of a democratic sort and viewed askance the entry of immigrants professing a