he leveled the way for the clericals； conservatives； and the militarists to invite foreign intervention on behalf of their desperate cause。 But； even if they had not been guilty of behavior so unpatriotic； the anger of the Pope over the treatment of his Church； the wrath of Spain over the conduct of Juarez； who had expelled the Spanish minister for siding with the ecclesiastics； the desire of Great Britain to collect debts due to her subjects； and above all the imperialistic ambitions of Napoleon III； who dreamt of converting the intellectual influence of France in Hispanic America into a political ascendancy； would probably have led to European occupation in any event； so long at least as the United States was slit asunder and incapable of action。
Some years before； the Mexican Government under the clerical and militarist regime had made a contract with a Swiss banker who for a payment of 500；000 had received bonds worth more than fifteen times the value of the loan。 When； therefore； the Mexican Congress undertook to defer payments on a foreign debt that included the proceeds of this outrageous contract； the Governments of France； Great Britain； and Spain decided to intervene。 According to their agreement the three powers were simply to hold the seaports of Mexico and collect the customs duties until their pecuniary demands had been satisfied。 Learning； however； that Napoleon III had ulterior designs； Great Britain and Spain withdrew their forces and left him to proceed with his scheme of conquest。 After capturing Puebla in May； 1863； a French army numbering some thirty thousand men entered the capital and installed an assemblage of notables belonging to the clerical and conservative groups。 This body thereupon proclaimed the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under an emperor。 The title was to be offered to Maximilian； Archduke of Austria。 In case he should not accept； the matter was to be referred to the 〃benevolence of his majesty； the Emperor of the French；〃 who might then select some other Catholic prince。
On his arrival； a year later； the amiable and well…meaning Maximilian soon discovered that； instead of being an 〃Emperor；〃 he was actually little more than a precarious chief of a faction sustained by the bayonets of a foreign army。 In the northern part of Mexico； Juarez； Porfirio Diaz；later to become the most renowned of presidential autocrats；and other patriot leaders； though hunted from place to place； held firmly to their resolve never to bow to the yoke of the pretender。 Nor could Maximilian be sure of the loyalty of even his supposed adherents。 Little by little the unpleasant conviction intruded itself upon him that he must either abdicate or crush all resistance in the hope that eventually time and good will might win over the Mexicans。 But do what they would； his foreign legions could not catch the wary and stubborn Juarez and his guerrilla lieutenants； who persistently wore down the forces of their enemies。 Then the financial situation became grave。 Still more menacing was the attitude of the United States now that its civil war was at an end。 On May 31； 1866； Maximilian received word that Napoleon III had decided to withdraw the French troops。 He then determined to abdicate； but he was restrained by the unhappy Empress Carlotta； who hastened to Europe to plead his cause with Napoleon。 Meantime； as the French troops were withdrawn； Juarez occupied the territory。
Feebly the 〃Emperor〃 strove to enlist the favor of his adversaries by a number of liberal decrees； but their sole result was his abandonment by many a lukewarm conservative。 Inexorably the patriot armies closed around him until in May； 1867； he was captured at Queretaro； where he had sought refuge。 Denied the privilege of leaving the country on a promise never to return； he asked Escobedo； his captor； to treat him as a prisoner of war。 〃That's my business；〃 was the grim reply。 On the pretext that Maximilian had refused to recognize the competence of the military court chosen to try him； Juarez gave the order to shoot him。 On the 19th of June the Austrian archduke paid for a fleeting glory with his life。 Thus failed the second attempt at erecting an empire in Mexico。 For thirty…four years diplomatic relations between that country and Austria…Hungary were severed。 The clericalmilitary combination had been overthrown； and the Mexican people had rearmed their independence。 As Juarez declared： 〃Peace means respect for the rights of others。〃
Even if foreign dreams of empire in Mexico had vanished so abruptly； it could hardly be expected that a land torn for many years by convulsions could become suddenly tranquil。 With Diaz and other aspirants to presidential power； or with chieftains who aimed at setting up little republics of their own in the several states； Juarez had to contend for some time before he could establish a fair amount of order。 Under his successor； who also was a civilian； an era of effective reform began。 In 1873 amendments to the constitution declared Church and State absolutely separate and provided for the abolition of peonagea provision which was more honored in； the breach than in the observance。
CHAPTER VII。 GREATER STATES AND LESSER
During the half century that had elapsed since 1826； the nations of Hispanic America had passed through dark ages。 Their evolution had always been accompanied by growing pains and had at times been arrested altogether or unduly hastened by harsh injections of radicalism。 It was not an orderly development through gradual modifications in the social and economic structure； but rather a fitful progress now assisted and now retarded by the arbitrary deeds of men of action； good and bad； who had seized power。 Dictators； however； steadily decreased in number and gave place often to presidential autocrats who were continued in office by constant reelection and who were imbued with modern ideas。 In 1876 these Hispanic nations stood on the threshold of a new era。 Some were destined to advance rapidly beyond it； others； to move slowly onward； and a few to make little or no progress。
The most remarkable feature in the new era was the rise of four statesMexico； Brazil； Argentina； and Chileto a position of eminence among their fellows。 Extent of territory； development of natural resources； the character of the inhabitants and the increase of their numbers； and the amount of popular intelligence and prosperity； all contributed to this end。 Each of the four nations belonged to a fairly well…defined historical and geographical group in southern North America； and in eastern and western South America； respectively。 In the first group were Mexico； the republics of Central America； and the island countries of the Caribbean； in the second； Brazil； Argentina； Uruguay； and Paraguay； and in the third； Chile； Peru； and Bolivia。 In a fourth group were Ecuador； Colombia； and Venezuela。
When the President of Mexico proceeded； in 1876； to violate the constitution by securing his reelection； the people were prepared by their earlier experiences and by the rule of Juarez to defend their constitutional rights。 A widespread rebellion headed by Diaz broke out。 In the so…called 〃Plan of Tuxtepec〃 the revolutionists declared themselves in favor of the principle of absolutely no reelection。 Meantime the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court handed down a decision that the action of the Congress in sustaining the President was illegal； since in reality no elections had been held because of the abstention of voters and the seizure of the polls by revolutionists or government forces。 〃Above the constitution； nothing； above the constitution； no one；〃 he declared。 But as this assumption of a power of judgment on matters of purely political concern was equally a violation of the constitution and concealed； besides； an attempt to make the Chief Justice President； Diaz and his followers drove both of the pretenders out。 Then in 1876 he managed to bring about his own election instead。
Porfirio Diaz was a soldier who had seen active service in nearly every important campaign since the war with the United States。 Often himself in revolt against presidents； legal and illegal； Diaz was vastly more than an ordinary partisan chieftain。 Schooled by a long experience； he had come to appreciate the fact that what Mexico required for its national development was freedom from internal disorders and a fair chance for recuperation。 Justice； order； and prosperity； he felt； could be assured only by imposing upon the country the heavy weight of an iron hand。 Foreign capital must be invested in Mexico and then protected； immigration must be encouraged； and other material； moral； and intellectual aid of all sorts must be drawn from abroad for the upbuilding of the nation。
To effect such a transformation in a land so tormented and impoverished as Mexicoa country which； within the span of fifty…five years had lived under two 〃emperors；〃 and some thirty…six presidents； nine 〃provisional presidents；〃 ten dictators； twelve 〃regents；〃 and five 〃supreme councilors〃required indeed a masterful intelligence and a masterful authority。 Porfirio Diaz possessed and exercised both。 He was； in fact； just the man for the times。 An able administrator； ste