country。 Ever since 1881； when a law providing for direct elections was passed； the Liberals had been in full control。 The old Dom Pedro； who had endeared himself to his people； was as much liked and respected as ever。 But as he had grown feeble and almost blind； the heiress to the throne； who had marked absolutist and clerical tendencies； was disposed to take advantage of his infirmities。
For many years； on the other hand； doctrines opposed to the principle of monarchy had been spread in zealous fashion by members of the military class； notable among whom was Deodoro da Fonseca。 And now some of the planters longed to wreak vengeance on a ruler who had dared to thwart their will by emancipating the slaves。 Besides this persistent discontent； radical republican newspapers continually stirred up fresh agitation。 Whatever the personal service rendered by the Emperor to the welfare of the country； to them he represented a political system which deprived the provinces of much of their local autonomy and the Brazilian people at large of self…government。
But the chief reason for the momentous change which was about to take place was the fact that the constitutional monarchy had really completed its work as a transitional government。 Under that regime Brazil had reached a condition of stability and had attained a level of progress which might well enable it to govern itself。 During all this time the influence of the Spanish American nations had been growing apace。 Even if they had fallen into many a political calamity； they were nevertheless 〃republics；〃 and to the South American this word had a magic sound。 Above all； there was the potent suggestion of the success of the United States of North America； whose extension of its federal system over a vast territory suggested what Brazil with its provinces might accomplish in the southern continent。 Hence the vast majority of intelligent Brazilians felt that they had become self…reliant enough to establish a republic without fear of lapsing into the unfortunate experiences of the other Hispanic countries。
In 1889； when provision was made for a speedy abdication of the Emperor in favor of his daughter； the republican newspapers declared that a scheme was being concocted to exile the chief military agitators and to interfere with any effort on the part of the army to prevent the accession of the new ruler。 Thereupon； on the 15th of November； the radicals at Rio de Janeiro； aided by the garrison； broke out in open revolt。 Proclaiming the establishment of a federal republic under the name of the 〃United States of Brazil；〃 they deposed the imperial ministry； set up a provisional government with Deodoro da Fonseca at its head； arranged for the election of a constitutional convention； and bade Dom Pedro and his family leave the country within twenty…four hours。
On the 17th of November； before daybreak； the summons was obeyed。 Not a soul appeared to bid the old Emperor farewell as he and his family boarded the steamer that was to bear them to exile in Europe。 Though seemingly an act of heartlessness and ingratitude； the precaution was a wise one in that it averted； possible conflict and bloodshed。 For the second time in its history； a fundamental change had been wrought in the political system of the nation without a resort to war！ The United States of Brazil accordingly took its place peacefully among its fellow republics of the New World。
Meanwhile Argentina； the great neighbor of Brazil to the southwest； had been gaining territory and new resources。 Since the definite adoption of a federal constitution in 1853； this state had attained to a considerable degree of national consciousness under the leadership of able presidents such as Bartolome Mitre； the soldier and historian； and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento； the publicist and promoter of popular education。 One evidence of this new nationalism was a widespread belief in the necessity of territorial expansion。 Knowing that Chile entertained designs upon Patagonia； the Argentine Government forestalled any action by conducting a war of practical extermination against the Indian tribes of that region and by adding it to the national domain。 The so…called 〃conquest of the desert〃 in the far south of the continent opened to civilization a vast habitable area of untold economic possibilities。
In the electoral campaign of 1880 the presidential candidates were Julio Argentino Roca and the Governor of the province of Buenos Aires。 The former； an able officer skilled in both arms and politics； had on his side the advantage of a reputation won in the struggle with the Patagonian Indians； the approval of the national Government； and the support of most of the provinces。 Feeling certain of defeat at the polls； the partisans of the latter candidate resorted to the timeworn expedient of a revolt。 Though the uprising lasted but twenty days； the diplomatic corps at the capital proffered its mediation between the contestants； in order to avoid any further bloodshed。 The result was that the fractious Governor withdrew his candidacy and a radical change was effected in the relations of Buenos Aires； city and province； to the country at large。 The city； together with its environs； was converted into a federal district and became solely and distinctively the national capital。 Its public buildings； railways； and telegraph service； as well as the provincial debt； were taken over by the general Government。 The seat of provincial authority was transferred to the village of Ensenada； which thereupon was rechristened La Plata。
A veritable tide of wealth and general prosperity was now rolling over Argentina。 By 1885 its population had risen to upwards of 3；000；000。 Immigration increased to a point far beyond the wildest expectations。 In 1889 alone about 300；000 newcomers arrived and lent their aid in the promotion of industry and commerce。 Fields hitherto uncultivated or given over to grazing now bore vast crops of wheat； maize； linseed； and sugar。 Large quantities of capital； chiefly from Great Britain； also poured into the country。 As a result； the price of land rose high； and feverish speculation became the order of the day。 Banks and other institutions of credit were set up； colonizing schemes were devised； and railways were laid out。 To meet the demands of all these enterprises； the Government borrowed immense sums from foreign capitalists and issued vast quantities of paper money； with little regard for its ultimate redemption。 Argentina spent huge sums in prodigal fashion on all sorts of public improvements in an effort to attract still more capital and immigration； and thus entered upon a dangerous era of inflation。
Of the near neighbors of Argentina； Uruguay continued along the tortuous path of alternate disturbance and progress； losing many of its inhabitants to the greater states beyond； where they sought relative peace and security； while Paraguay； on the other hand； enjoyed freedom from civil strife； though weighed down with a war debt and untold millions in indemnities exacted by Argentina and Brazil； which it could never hope to pay。 In consequence； this indebtedness was a useful club to brandish over powerless Paraguay whenever that little country might venture to question the right of either of its big neighbors to break the promise they had made of keeping its territory intact。 Argentina； however； consented in 1878 to refer certain claims to the decision of the President of the United States。 When Paraguay won the arbitration； it showed its gratitude by naming one of its localities Villa Hayes。 As time went on； however； its population increased and hid many of the scars of war。
On the western side of South America there broke out the struggle known as the 〃War of the Pacific〃 between Chile； on the one side； and Peru and Bolivia as allies on the other。 In Peru unstable and corrupt governments had contracted foreign loans under conditions that made their repayment almost impossible and had spent the proceeds in so reckless and extravagant a fashion as to bring the country to the verge of bankruptcy。 Bolivia； similarly governed； was still the scene of the orgies and carnivals which had for some time characterized its unfortunate history。 One of its buffoon 〃presidents；〃 moreover； had entered into boundary agreements with both Chile and Brazil； under which the nation lost several important areas and some of its territory on the Pacific。 The boundaries of Bolivia； indeed； were run almost everywhere on purely arbitrary lines drawn with scant regard for the physical features of the country and with many a frontier question left wholly unsettled。 For some years Chilean companies and speculators； aided by foreign capital mainly British in origin； had been working deposits of nitrate of soda in the province of Antofagasta； or 〃the desert of Atacama；〃 a region along the coast to the northward belonging to Bolivia； and also in the provinces of Tacna； Arica； and Tarapaca； still farther to the northward； belonging to Peru。 Because boundary lines were not altogether clear and because the three countries were all eager to exploit these deposits； controversies over this debatable ground were sure to rise。 For the privilege of developing portions of this region