Chile。 Though the great landholders were disposed to favor a reasonable amount of local autonomy for the country； they refused to heed the demands of the radicals for complete independence and the establishwent of a republic。 Accordingly； in proportion as their opponents resorted to measures of compulsion； the gentry gradually withdrew their support and offered little resistance when troops dispatched by the viceroy of Peru restored the Spanish regime in 1814。 The irreconcilable among the patriots fled over the Andes to the western part of La Plata； where they found hospitable refuge。
But of all the Spanish dominions in South America none witnessed so desperate a struggle for emancipation as the viceroyalty of New Granada。 Learning of the catastrophe that had befallen the mother country； the leading citizens of Caracas； acting in conjunction with the cabildo； deposed the captain general on April 19； 1810； and created a junta in his stead。 The example was quickly followed by most of the smaller divisions of the province。 Then when Miranda returned from England to head the revolutionary movement； a Congress； on July 5； 1811； declared Venezuela independent of Spain。 Carried away； also； by the enthusiasm of the moment； and forgetful of the utter unpreparedness of the country； the Congress promulgated a federal constitution modeled on that of the United States； which set forth all the approved doctrines of the rights of man。
Neither Miranda nor his youthful coadjutor； Simon Bolivar； soon to become famous in the annals of Spanish American history； approved of this plunge into democracy。 Ardent as their patriotism was； they knew that the country needed centralized control and not experiments in confederation or theoretical liberty。 They speedily found out； also； that they could not count on the support of the people at large。 Then； almost as if Nature herself disapproved of the whole proceeding； a frightful earthquake in the following year shook many a Venezuelan town into ruins。 Everywhere the royalists took heart。 Dissensions broke out between Miranda and his subordinates。 Betrayed into the hands of his enemies； the old warrior himself was sent away to die in a Spanish dungeon。 And so the 〃earthquake〃 republic collapsed。
But the rigorous measures adopted by the royalists to sustain their triumph enabled Bolivar to renew the struggle in 1813。 He entered upon a campaign which was signalized by acts of barbarity on both sides。 His declaration of 〃war to the death〃 was answered in kind。 Wholesale slaughter of prisoners； indiscriminate pillage； and wanton destruction of property spread terror and desolation throughout the country。 Acclaimed 〃Liberator of Venezuela〃 and made dictator by the people of Caracas； Bolivar strove in vain to overcome the half…savage llaneros； or cowboys of the plains； who despised the innovating aristocrats of the capital。 Though he won a few victories； he did not make the cause of independence popular； and； realizing his failure； he retired into New Granada。
In this region an astounding series of revolutions and counter…revolutions had taken place。 Unmindful of pleas for cooperation； the Creole leaders in town and district； from 1810 onward； seized control of affairs in a fashion that betokened a speedy disintegration of the country。 Though the viceroy was deposed and a general Congress was summoned to meet at the capital； Bogota； efforts at centralization encountered opposition in every quarter。 Only the royalists managed to preserve a semblance of unity。 Separate republics sprang into being and in 1813 declared their independence of Spain。 Presidents and congresses were pitted against one another。 Towns fought among themselves。 Even parishes demanded local autonomy。 For a while the services of Bolivar were invoked to force rebellious areas into obedience to the principle of confederation； but with scant result。 Unable to agree with his fellow officers and displaying traits of moral weakness which at this time as on previous occasions showed that he had not yet risen to a full sense of responsibility； the Liberator renounced the task and fled to Jamaica。
The scene now shifts northward to the viceroyalty of New Spain。 Unlike the struggles already described； the uprisings that began in 1810 in central Mexico were substantially revolts of Indians and half…castes against white domination。 On the 16th of September； a crowd of natives rose under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo； a parish priest of the village of Dolores。 Bearing on their banners the slogan； 〃Long live Ferdinand VII and down with bad government； 〃 the undisciplined crowd； soon to number tens of thousands； aroused such terror by their behavior that the whites were compelled to unite in self…defense。 It mattered not whether Hidalgo hoped to establish a republic or simply to secure for his followers relief from oppression： in either case the whites could expect only Indian domination。 Before the trained forces of the whites a horde of natives； so ignorant of modern warfare that some of them tried to stop cannon balls by clapping their straw hats over the mouths of the guns； could not stand their ground。 Hidalgo was captured and shot； but he was succeeded by Jose Maria Morelos； also a priest。 Reviving the old Aztec name for central Mexico； he summoned a 〃Congress of Anahuac；〃 which in 1813 asserted that dependence on the throne of Spain was 〃forever broken and dissolved。〃 Abler and more humane than Hidalgo； he set up a revolutionary government that the authorities of Mexico failed for a while to suppress。
In 1814； therefore； Spain still held the bulk of its dominions。 Trinidad； to be sure； had been lost to Great Britain； and both Louisiana and West Florida to the United States。 Royalist control； furthermore； had ceased in parts of the viceroyalties of La Plata and New Granada。 To regain Trinidad and Louisiana was hopeless： but a wise policy conciliation or an overwheming display of armed force might yet restore Spanish rule where it had been merely suspended。
Very different was the course of events in Brazil。 Strangely enough； the first impulse toward independence was given by the Portuguese royal family。 Terrified by the prospective invasion of the country by a French army； late in 1807 the Prince Regent； the royal family； and a host of Portuguese nobles and commoners took passage on British vessels and sailed to Rio de Janeiro。 Brazil thereupon became the seat of royal government and immediately assumed an importance which it could never have attained as a mere dependency。 Acting under the advice of the British minister； the Prince Regent threw open the ports of the colony to the ships of all nations friendly to Portugal； gave his sanction to a variety of reforms beneficial to commerce and industry； and even permitted a printing press to be set up； though only for official purposes。 From all these benevolent activities Brazil derived great advantages。 On the other hand； the Prince Regent's aversion to popular education or anything that might savor of democracy and the greed of his followers for place and distinction alienated his colonial subjects。 They could not fail to contrast autocracy in Brazil with the liberal ideas that had made headway elsewhere in Spanish America。 As a consequence a spirit of unrest arose which boded ill for the maintenance of Portuguese rule。
CHAPTER III 〃INDEPNDENCE OR DEATH〃
The restoration of Ferdinand VII to his throne in 1814 encouraged the liberals of Spain； no less than the loyalists of Spanish America； to hope that the 〃old King〃 would now grant a new dispensation。 Freedom of commerce and a fair measure of popular representation in government； it was believed； would compensate both the mother country for the suffering which it had undergone during the Peninsular War and the colonies for the trials to which loyalty had been subjected。 But Ferdinand VII was a typical Bourbon。 Nothing less than an absolute reestablishment of the earlier regime would satisfy him。 On both sides of the Atlantic； therefore； the liberals were forced into opposition to the crown； although they were so far apart that they could not cooperate with each other。 Independence was to be the fortune of the Spanish Americans； and a continuance of despotism； for a while； the lot of the Spaniards。
As the region of the viceroyalty of La Plata had been the first to cast off the authority of the home government； so it was the first to complete its separation from Spain。 Despite the fact that disorder was rampant everywhere and that most of the local districts could not or would not send deputies； a congress that assembled at Tucuman voted on July 9； 1816； to declare the 〃United Provinces in South America〃 independent。 Comprehensive though the expression was； it applied only to the central part of the former viceroyalty； and even there it was little more than an aspiration。 Mistrust of the authorities at Buenos Aires； insistence upon provincial autonomy； failure to agree upon a particular kind of republican government； and a lingering inclination to monarchy made progress toward national unity impossible。 In 1819； to be sure； a constitution was adopted； providing for a centralized government； but in the country at large it encountere