d Navahos in the east； Utes and Navahos in the north； Mohaves and Yumas in the west began to encroach upon them。 Envious eyes gazed upon their houses and the goods that industry and skill had gathered within。 Those who had no food stored when famine swooped upon them； came and begged from those who had。 By and by jealousy and envy prompted theft； and then strife began。 Strife spread and grew； until war in all its horrors became the normal condition。 In self preservation； these peaceable； friendly； hospitable peoples were compelled to be warriors。 But their foes were many and crafty； skilful in war； wary in attack and retreat。 Their harassments became more than could be borne； so； in their desperation； the peaceable people retreated to the cliffs and walls of the Canyons； where surprise could be guarded against； where a small supply of water could be reasonably sure； and where； not too far away； when permitted to do so； they might cultivate a small piece of arable land。
Compelled to Wage War。 Think of the state of affairs！ A state of perpetual siege and watchfulness； of readiness to fight at any moment； of keeping lookouts on the alert day and night； of working in the fields with one hand on the implements of peace and industry； and the other on the implements of war。 The night attack； murder； rapine； fire and bloodshed became common experiences； and the discovery of many bodies； the skulls crushed with battleaxes； of skeletons of men slain with the deadly arrow； of bodies twisted by torture and charred by fire； reveal what a reign of terror and dread that epoch must have been in the land of the cliff…dweller。
Houses Became Fortresses。 For how many decades or centuries this lasted； we do not know。 Somewhat uncertain tradition is all we have to rely upon。 But ultimately the pressure became less severe。 In some cases； hostilities largely ceased； in others； they became less constant。 So the pueblos we find in existence to…day slowly began to arise。 One by one； the bands of cliff…dwellers dared to leave their wall fortresses and to build in more congenial places； nearer to their fields and springs or water…courses。 But； taught by past experience； they made their homes into fortresses。 The houses were massed together； largely for protective purposes； there was no means of easy entrance to the bottom story （they were built from two to seven stories high）； the only way provided being by a hatchway and ladder from the roof。 The rooms of the second story were thrust back a little； so that the roof of the first story formed a kind of courtyard for its inhabitants。 Ladders that could easily be removed afforded ingress and egress； and the doorways could be guarded by flat slabs of rock。 Numerous loop…holes afforded outlook points； and also opportunity for the shooting of poisoned arrows upon an oncoming foe。
Buildings in Inaccessible Places。 In some cases； as that of the Hopi villages； Acoma and old Zuni； the new towns were erected upon almost inaccessible mesas； the steep trails of which could be securely guarded against an army by a handful of hidden men。
Arrival of Spaniards。 This was the state of affairs when the Spaniards marched into the country （after the reconnaissance of Fray Marcos）； under the leadership of Coronado and his lieutenant； the ensign Tovar。 Hence it will be seen that the original discoverers and inhabitants of the Grand Canyon were evidently the ancestors of the present pueblo peoples。
CHAPTER XXIV。 El Tovar And Cardenas And The Modern Discovery Of The Grand Canyon
The Spanish Conquistadores。 Few romances are more fascinating than the history of the early exploitations of this continent by the Spanish conquistadores。 Cortes； Pizarro； Guzman； Narvaez； Coronado are names to conjure with。 The wonderful successes of Cortes naturally excited the jealous envy and cupidity of his compeers。 In his earlier experiences； Cortes had aroused the anger of Velasquez； Governor of Cuba。 Cortes； in one of his many acts of gallantry； had betrayed the sister of Velasquez's mistress。 When Velasquez learned the facts； to peremptorily commanded Cortes； who was his subordinate； to marry the unhappy girl。 Refusals and imprisonments； threats and anger were the natural consequences； and； while Cortes did ultimately marry her； the enmity thus engendered bore bitter fruit for the husband。
Breach between Cortes and Velasquez。 When Cortes made his effective conquests on the mainland and sought to supplant Velasquez； the breach between the two men considerably widened。 Both sought； with embassies； the ear of the King of Spain； Charles V； and while the future conqueror made a deep impression with his reports of conquests to come and treasures already in hand； the Governor's friends were not slow to act。 Meanwhile； Cortes had hit upon the bold plan of destroying his ships； and thus compelling his men to march to the subjugation of Mexico。 Velasquez was about to dispatch Panfilo de Narvaez with a commission as captain…general to arrest him； and send him in chains to Cuba。 The king； however； would not permit this； and Narvaez was sent forth charged to be friendly to Cortes。 But this was not to be。 Events prevented； and Narvaez finally decided to place Cortes and his whole army under arrest。 This was a great undertaking； and required skilful generalship； as well as boldness and skill in execution。 Though a gallant warrior； Narvaez was not equal to the task he had set himself； and Cortes； having learned what was before him； turned the tables upon Narvaez and his force by becoming the arrestor instead of the arrested。 It requires no great knowledge of human nature to picture the fierce anger of Narvaez and his men。 When Cortes eventually released them； it was on condition that he be left alone； and that Narvaez return to Spain。 The defeated man； with anger burning his jealous heart to a white heat； did return； and immediately demanded of the king some mission that should allow him to remove the disgrace from his name。 To get rid of him； the king sent him to the conquest of what is now Florida。
Expedition to Florida。 It was a brave expedition that set forth on a bright day in June； 1527。 Five ships and six hundred men made quite a showing； yet the Atlantic Ocean； aided by storms and winds； flouted and routed them； so that it was April of the following year before the main part of the expedition landed at Tampa Bay。 Of the total destruction of the party； save Cabeza de Vaca and three or four others； all readers are fairly familiar； as they are likewise of De Vaca's wonderful eight years' journey across the continent。
Arrival at San Miguel。 I have thus rapidly traced these events in the early history of the exploration of this continent； for it was the wanderings of Cabeza de Vaca and his final arrival at San Miguel in New Galicia that brought the Ensign Tovar into Arizona； and led to the discovery of the Grand Canyon。
Preliminary Reconnaissance。 The Viceroy of New Spain at that time was Antonio de Mendoza； a wise； loyal and farseeing man。 He was anxious to checkmate Cortes； and to show that others besides the great； though treacherous conqueror； could make discoveries of new lands； where gold was abundant； and where colonies could be established。 Yet he would not be rash。 Before sending out a large expedition to conquer the cities and fertile land Cabeza de Vaca had described； it would be wise and cautious to send a cool…headed man； one who was prepared for any hardship； one who had no lust for gold in his own soul； yet who could be relied upon to bring back a straight and true story to the viceroy as to whatever he might discover concerning De Vaca's stories。 He should be accompanied by Stephen； the negro； who was one of De Vaca's companions； and thus he would be accurately guided to the places that had been described。 The man chosen for this important reconnaissance was a devoted Franciscan； Fray Marcos； to whom I have devoted the next chapter of this book。 Marcos went； saw； returned and reported； and upon his report the expedition of Coronado was equipped and fitted out。
Coronado's Army。 The fervor with which the Spanish gallants joined Coronado's army of exploration is realized when one remembers that three hundred Spaniards as well as eight hundred Indians were gathered together in a few days。 Coronado was a Spanish grandee； traveling at the time of De Vaca's arrival as a royal official visitor。 In the words of Castaneda he was 〃a gentleman from Salamanca； who had married a lady in the City of Mexico； the daughter of Alonso de Estrada； the treasurer and at one time governor of Mexico； and the son （most people said） of his Catholic Majesty Don Ferdinand； and many state it as certain。〃 And the same historian later on continues； in his simple and naive way； to tell us about Tovar and many others： 〃When the Viceroy； Don Antonio de Mendoza； saw what a noble company had come together； and the spirit and good will with which they had all presented themselves； knowing the worth of these men； he would have liked very well to make every one of them captain of an army； but as the whole number was small he could not do as he would have liked； and so he appointed the captains and officers because it seemed to him that if they were appointed