on of the latter。 It was here that the Council of Areopagus met； frequently called the Upper Council； to distinguish it from the Council of Five Hundred； which assembled in the valley below。 The Areopagites sat as judges in the open air； and two blocks of stone are still to be seen； probably those which were occupied respectively by the accuser and the accused。 The Areopagus was the spot where the Apostle Paul preached to the men of Athens。
The Pnyx； or place for holding the public assemblies of the Athenians； stood on the side of a low rocky hill； at the distance of about a quarter of a mile from the Areopagus。 Projecting from the hill and hewn out of it； still stands a solid rectangular block； called the Bema or pulpit； from whence the orators addressed the multitude in the area before them。 The position of the Bema commanded a view of the Propylaea and the other magnificent edifices of the Acropolis； while beneath it was the city itself studded with monuments of Athenian glory。 The Athenian orators frequently roused the national feelings of their audience by pointing to the Propylaea and to the other splendid buildings before them。 Between the Pnyx on the west； the Areopagus on the north； and the Acropolis on the east； and closely adjoining the base of these hills； stood the Agora （or market…place）。 In a direction from north…west to south…east a street called the Ceramicus ran diagonally through the Agora； entering it through the valley between the Pnyx and the Areopagus。 The street was named after a district of the city； which was divided into two parts； the Inner and Outer Ceramicus。 The former lay within the city walls； and included the Agora。 The Outer Ceramicus； which formed a handsome suburb on the north… west of the city； was the burial…place of all persons honoured with a public funeral。 Through it ran the road to the gymnasium and gardens of the Academy which were situated about a mile from the walls。 The Academy was the place where Plato and his disciples taught。 On each side of this road were monuments to illustrious Athenians； especially those who had fallen in battle。
East of the city； and outside the walls； was the Lyceum； a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceus； and celebrated as the place in which Aristotle taught。
CHAPTER XI。
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR。FIRST PERIOD； FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE WAR TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS； B。C。 431…421。
War was now fairly kindled。 All Greece looked on in suspense as its two leading cities were about to engage in a strife of which no man could forsee the end； but the youth； with which both Athens and Peloponnesus then abounded； having had no experience of the bitter calamities of war； rushed into it with ardour。 It was a war of principles and races。 Athens was a champion of democracy； Sparta of aristocracy； Athens represented the Ionic tribes； Sparta the Dorian； the former were fond of novelty； the latter were conservative and stationary； Athens had the command of the sea； Sparta was stronger upon land。 On the side of Sparta was ranged the whole of Peloponnesus； except Argos and Achaia； together with the Megarians； Boeotians； Phocians； Opuntian Locrians； Ambraciots； Leucadians； and Anactorians。 The allies of Athens； with the exception of the Thessalians； Acarnanians； Messenians at Naupactus； and Plataeans； were all insular； and consisted of the Chians； Lesbians； Corcyraeans； and Zacynthians； and shortly afterwards of the Cephallenians； To these must be added her tributary towns on the coast of Thrace and Asia Minor； together with all the islands north of Crete； except Melos and Thera。
The Peloponnesians commenced the war by an invasion of Attica； with a large army； under the command of the Spartan King Archidamus （B。C。 431）。 Pericles had instructed the inhabitants of Attica to secure themselves and their property within the walls of Athens。 They obeyed his injunctions with reluctance； for the Attic population had from the earliest times been strongly attached to a rural life。 But the circumstances admitted of no alternative。 Archidamus advanced as far as Acharnae； a flourishing Attic borough situated only about seven miles from Athens。 Here he encamped on a rising ground within sight of the metropolis； and began to lay waste the country around； expecting probably by that means to provoke the Athenians to battle。 But in this he was disappointed。 Notwithstanding the murmurs and clamours of the citizens Pericles remained firm； and steadily refused to venture an engagement in the open held。 The Peloponnesians retired from Attica after still further ravaging the country； and the Athenians retaliated by making descents upon various parts of the coasts of Peloponnesus； and ravaging the territory of Megara。
Such were the results of the first campaign。 From the method in which the war was conducted it had become pretty evident that it would prove of long duration； and the Athenians now proceeded to provide for this contingency。 It was agreed that a reserve fund of 1000 talents should be set apart； which was not to be touched in any other case than an attack upon Athens by sea。 Any citizen who proposed to make a different use of the fund incurred thereby the punishment of death。 With the same view it was resolved to reserve every year 100 of their best triremes； fully manned and equipped。
Towards the winter Pericles delivered； from a lofty platform erected in the Ceramicus； the funeral oration of those who had fallen in the war。 This speech； or at all events the substance of it； has been preserved by Thucydides； who may possibly have heard it pronounced。 It is a valuable monument of eloquence and patriotism； and particularly interesting for the sketch which it contains of Athenian manners as well as of the Athenian constitution。
In the following year （B。C。 430） the Peloponnesians； under Archidamus； renewed their invasion of Attica。 At the same time the Athenians were attacked by a more insidious and a more formidable enemy。 The plague broke out in the crowded city。 This terrible disorder； which was supposed to have originated in AEthiopia； had already desolated Asia and many of the countries around the Mediterranean。 A great proportion of those who were seized perished in from seven to nine days。 It frequently attacked the mental faculties； and left even those who recovered from it so entirely deprived of memory that they could recognise neither themselves nor others。 The disorder being new； the physicians could find no remedy in the resources of their art。 Despair now began to take possession of the Athenians。 Some suspected that the Peloponnesians had poisoned the wells； others attributed the pestilence to the anger of Apollo。 A dreadful state of moral dissolution followed。 The sick were seized with unconquerable despondency； whilst a great part of the population who had hitherto escaped the disorder； expecting soon to be attacked in turn； abandoned themselves to all manner of excess； debauchery； and crime。 The numbers carried off by the pestilence can hardly be estimated at less than a fourth of the whole population；
Oppressed at once by war and pestilence； their lands desolated； their homes filled with mourning； it is not surprising that the Athenians were seized with rage and despair； or that they vented their anger on Pericles； whom they deemed the author of their misfortunes。 But that statesman still adhered to his plans with unshaken firmness。 Though the Lacedaemonians were in Attica； though the plague had already seized on Athens； he was vigorously pushing his schemes of offensive operations。 A foreign expedition might not only divert the popular mind but would prove beneficial by relieving the crowded city of part of its population； and accordingly a fleet was fitted out； of which Pericles himself took the command； and which committed devastations upon various parts of the Peloponnesian coast。 But； upon returning from this expedition； Pericles found the public feeling more exasperated than before。 Envoys had even been despatched to Sparta to sue for peace； but had been dismissed without a hearing； a disappointment which had rendered the populace still more furious。 Pericles now found it necessary to call a public assembly in order to vindicate his conduct； and to encourage the desponding citizens to persevere。 But though he succeeded in persuading them to prosecute the war with vigour； they still continued to nourish their feelings of hatred against the great statesman。 His political enemies； of whom Cleon was the chief； took advantage of this state of the public mind to bring against him a charge of peculation。 The main object of this accusation was to incapacitate him for the office of Strategus； or general。 ＇The Strategi； or Generals； were ten in number； elected annually； and were intrusted not only with the command on military expeditions； but with the superintendence of all warlike preparations； and with the regulation of all matters in any way connected with the war department of the state。＇ He was brought before the dicastery on this charge； and sentenced to pay a considerable fine； but eventually a strong reaction occurred in his favour。 He was re…elected general； and apparently regained all the influe