Venus）。 Even the gods took part in the contest； encouraging their favourite heroes； and sometimes fighting by their side or in their stead。
It was not till the tenth year of the war that Troy yielded to the inevitable decree of fate； and it is this year which forms the subject of the Iliad。 Achilles； offended by Agamemnon； abstains from the war； and in his absence the Greeks are no match for Hector。 The Trojans drive them back into their camp； and are already setting fire to their ships； when Achilles gives his armour to his friend Patroclus； and allows him to charge at the head of the Myrmidons。 Patroclus repulses the Trojans from the ships； but the god Apollo is against him； and he falls under the spear of Hector。 Desire to avenge the death of his friend proves more powerful in the breast of Achilles than anger against Agamemnon。 He appears again in the field in new and gorgeous armour； forged for him by the god Hephrastus （Vulcan） at the prayer of Thetis。 The Trojans fly before him； and； although Achilles is aware that his own death must speedily follow that of the Trojan hero； he slays Hector in single combat。
The Iliad closes with the burial of Hector。 The death of Achilles and the capture of Troy were related in later poems。 The hero of so many achievements perishes by an arrow shot by the unwarlike Paris； but directed by the hand of Apollo。 The noblest combatants had now fallen on either side； and force of arms had proved unable to accomplish what stratagem at length effects。 It is Ulysses who now steps into the foreground and becomes the real conqueror of Troy。 By his advice a wooden horse is built； in whose inside he and other heroes conceal themselves。 The infatuated Trojans admit the horse within their walls。 In the dead of night the Greeks rush out and open the gates to their comrades。 Troy is delivered over to the sword； and its glory sinks in ashes。 The fall of Troy is placed in the year 1184 B。C。
The return of the Grecian leaders from Troy forms another series of poetical legends。 Several meet with tragical ends。 Agamemnon is murdered on his arrival at Mycenae； by his wife Clytaemnestra and her paramour AEgisthus。 But of these wanderings the most celebrated and interesting are those of Ulysses； which form the subject of the Odyssey。 After twenty years' absence he arrives at length in Ithaca； where he slays the numerous suitors who devoured his substance and contended for the hand of his wife Penelope。
The Homeric poems must not be regarded as a record of historical persons and events； but； at the same time； they present a valuable picture of the institutions and manners of the earliest known state of Grecian society。
In the Heroic age Greece was already divided into a number of independent states； each governed by its own king。 The authority of the king was not limited by any laws； his power resembled that of the patriarchs in the Old Testament； and for the exercise of it he was responsible only to Zeus； and not to his people。 But though the king was not restrained in the exercise of his power by any positive laws； his authority was practically limited by the BOULE； or council of chiefs； and the Agora； or general assembly of freemen。 These two bodies； of little account in the Heroic age； became in the Republican age the sole depositories of political power。
The Greeks in the Heroic age were divided into the three classes of nobles； common freemen； and slaves。 The nobles were raised far above the rest of the community in honour； power； and wealth。 They were distinguished by their warlike prowess； their large estates； and their numerous slaves。 The condition of the general mass of freemen is rarely mentioned。 They possessed portions of land as their own property； which they cultivated themselves； but there was another class of poor freemen； called Thetes； who had no land of their own； and who worked for hire on the estates of others。 Slavery was not so prevalent in the Heroic age as at a later time； and appears in a less odious aspect。 The nobles alone possessed slaves； and they treated them with a degree of kindness which frequently secured for the masters their affectionate attachment。
Society was marked by simplicity of manners。 The kings and nobles did not consider it derogatory to their dignity to acquire skill in the manual arts。 Ulysses is represented as building his own bed…chamber and constructing his own raft； and he boasts of being an excellent mower and ploughman。 Like Esau； who made savoury meat for his father Isaac； the Heroic chiefs prepared their own meals and prided themselves on their skill in cookery。 Kings and private persons partook of the same food； which was of the simplest kind。 Beef； mutton； and goat's flesh were the ordinary meats； and cheese； flour； and sometimes fruits； also formed part of the banquet； wine was drunk diluted with water； and the entertainments were never disgraced by intemperance； like those of our northern ancestors。 The enjoyment of the banquet was heightened by the song and the dance； and the chiefs took more delight in the lays of the minstrel than in the exciting influence of the wine。
The wives and daughters of the chiefs； in like manner； did not deem it beneath them to discharge various duties which were afterwards regarded as menial。 Not only do we find them constantly employed in weaving； spinning and embroidery； but like the daughters of the patriarchs they fetch water from the well and assist their slaves in washing garments in the river。
Even at this early age the Greeks had made considerable advances in civilization。 They were collected in fortified towns； which were surrounded by walls and adorned with palaces and temples。 The massive ruins of Mycenae and the sculptured lions on the gate of this city belong to the Heroic age； and still excite the wonder of the beholder。 Commerce； however； was little cultivated； and was not much esteemed。 It was deemed more honourable for a man to enrich himself by robbery and piracy than by the arts of peace。 Coined money is not mentioned in the poems of Homer。 Whether the Greeks were acquainted at this early period with the art of writing is a question which has given rise to much dispute； and must remain undetermined； but poetry was cultivated with success； though yet confined to epic strains； or the narration of the exploits and adventures of the Heroic chiefs。 The bard sung his own song； and was always received with welcome and honour in the palaces of the nobles。
In the battle； as depicted by Homer； the chiefs are the only important combatants； while the people are an almost useless mass； frequently put to rout by the prowess of a single hero。 The chief is mounted in a war chariot； and stands by the side of his charioteer； who is frequently a friend。
CHAPTER III。
GENERAL SURVEY OF THE GREEK PEOPLENATIONAL INSTITUTIONS。
The Greeks； as we have already seen； were divided into many independent communities； but several causes bound them together as one people。 Of these the most important were community of blood and languagecommunity of religious rites and festivals and community of manners and character。
All the Greeks were descended from the same ancestor and spoke the same language。 They all described men and cities which were not Grecian by the term BARBARIAN。 This word has passed into our own language； but with a very different idea； for the Greeks applied it indiscriminately to every foreigner； to the civilized inhabitants of Egypt and Persia； as well as to the rude tribes of Scythia and Gaul。
The second bond of union was a community of religious rites and festivals。 From the earliest times the Greeks appear to have worshipped the same gods； but originally there were no religious meetings common to the whole nation。 Such meetings were of gradual growth； being formed by a number of neighbouring towns； which entered into an association for the periodical celebration of certain religious rites。 Of these the most celebrated was the AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL。 It acquired its superiority over other similar associations by the wealth and grandeur of the Delphian temple； of which it was the appointed guardian。 It held two meetings every year； one in the spring at the temple of Apollo at Delphi； and the other in the autumn at the temple of Demeter （Ceres） at Thermopylae。 Its members； who were called the Amphictyons； consisted of sacred deputies sent from twelve tribes； each of which contained several independent cities or states。 But the Council was never considered as a national congress； whose duty it was to protect and defend the common interests of Greece； and it was only when the rights of the Delphian god had been violated that it invoked the aid of the various members of the league。
The Olympic Games were of greater efficacy than the amphictyonic council in promoting a spirit of union among the various branches of the Greek race； and in keeping alive a feeling of their common origin。 They were open to all persons who could prove their Hellenic blood； and were frequented by spectators from all parts of the Grecian world。 They were celebrated at Olympia； on the banks of the Alpheus； in the territory of Elis。 The origin of the festival is