med Macedonian phalanx； which was 16 men deep； armed with long projecting spears。
Philip's views were first turned towards the eastern frontiers of his dominions； where his interests clashed with those of the Athenians。 A few years before the Athenians had made various unavailing attempts to obtain possession of Amphipolis； once the jewel of their empire； but which they had never recovered since its capture by Brasidas in the eighth year of the Peloponnesian war。 Its situation at the mouth of the Strymon rendered it also valuable to Macedonia； not only as a commercial port； but as opening a passage into Thrace。 The Olynthians were likewise anxious to enrol Amphipolis as a member of their confederacy； and accordingly proposed to the Athenians to form an alliance for the purpose of defending Amphipolis against their mutual enemy。 An alliance between these two powerful states would have proved an insurmountable obstacle to Philip's views： and it was therefore absolutely necessary to prevent this coalition。 Here we have the first instance of Philip's skill and duplicity in negotiation。 By secretly promising the Athenians that he would put Amphipolis into their hands if they would give him possession of Pydna； he induced them to reject the overtures of the Olynthians； and by ceding to the latter the town of Anthemus； he bought off their opposition。 He now laid siege to Amphipolis； which； being thus left unaided； fell into his hands （B。C。 358）。 He then forthwith marched against Pydna； which surrendered to him； but on the ground that it was not the Athenians who had put him in possession of this town； he refused to give up Amphipolis to them。
Philip had now just reason to dread the enmity of the Athenians； and accordingly it was his policy to court the favour of the Olynthians； and to prevent them from renewing their negotiations with the Athenians。 In order to separate them more effectually； he assisted the Olynthians in recovering Potidaea； which had formerly belonged to their confederacy； but was now in the hands of the Athenians。 On the capture of the town he handed it over to the Olynthians。 Plutarch relates that the capture of Potidaea was accompanied with three other fortunate events in the life of Philip； namely； the prize gained by his chariot at the Olympic games； a victory of his general Parmenio over the Illyrians； and the birth of his son Alexander。 These events happened in B。C。 356。
Philip now crossed the Strymon； on the left bank of which lay Pangaeus； a range of mountains abounding in gold…mines。 He conquered the district； and founded there a new town called Philippi； on the site of the ancient Thracian town of Crenides。 By improved methods of working the mines he made them yield an annual revenue of 1000 talents； nearly 250；000l。
Meanwhile Athens was engaged in a war with her allies； which has been called the SOCIAL WAR； and which was； perhaps； the reason why she was obliged to look quietly on whilst Philip was thus aggrandizing himself at her expense。 This war broke out in B。C。 357。 The chief causes of it seem to have been the contributions levied upon the allies by the Athenian generals。 The war lasted three years； and as Artaxerxes； the Persian king； threatened to support the allies with a fleet of 300 ships； the Athenians were obliged to consent to a disadvantageous peace； which secured the independence of the more important allies （B。C。 355）。
Another war； which had been raging during the same time； tended still further to exhaust the Grecian states； and thus pave the way for Philip's progress to the supremacy。 This was the SACRED WAR； which broke out between Thebes and Phocis in the same year as the Social War （B。C。 357）。 An ill…feeling had long subsisted between those two countries。 The Thebans now availed themselves of the influence which they possessed in the Amphictyonic council to take vengeance upon the Phocians and accordingly induced this body to impose a heavy fine upon the latter people； because they had cultivated a portion of the Cirrhaean plain； which had been consecrated to the Delphian god； and was to lie waste for ever。 The Phocians pleaded that the payment of the fine would ruin them； but instead of listening to their remonstrances； the Amphictyons doubled the amount； and threatened； in case of their continued refusal to reduce them to the condition of serfs。 Thus driven to desperation； the Phocians resolved to complete the sacrilege with which they had been branded； by seizing the very temple of Delphi itself。 The leader and counsellor of this enterprise was Philomelus； who； with a force of no more than 2000 men； surprised and took Delphi。 At first； however； he carefully abstained from touching the sacred treasure； but being hard pressed by the Thebans and their allies； he threw off the scruples which he had hitherto assumed； and announced that the sacred treasures should be converted into a fund for the payment of mercenaries。 On the death of Philomelus； who fell in battle； the command was assumed by his brother Onomarchus； who carried on the war with vigour and success。 But he was checked in his career by Philip； who had previously been extending his dominion over Thessaly； and who now assumed the character of a champion of the Delphic god； and made his soldiers wear wreaths of laurel plucked in the groves of Tempe。 He penetrated into Thessaly； and encountered the Phocians near the gulf of Pagassae。 In the battle which ensued； Onomarchus was slain； and his army totally defeated （B。C。 352）。 This victory made Philip master of Thessaly。 He now directed his march southwards with the view of subduing the Phocians； but upon reaching Thermopylae he found the pass guarded by a strong Athenian force； and was compelled； or considered it more prudent； to retreat。
After his return from Thessaly Philip's views were directed towards Thrace and the Chersonese。 It was at this juncture that Demosthenes stepped forwards as the proclaimed opponent of Philip； and delivered the first of those celebrated orations which from their subject have been called 〃the Philippics。〃 This most famous of all the Grecian orators was born in B。C。 382…381。 Having lost his father at the early age of seven； his guardians abused their trust； and defrauded him of the greater part of his paternal inheritance。 This misfortune； however； proved one of the causes which tended to make him an orator。 Demosthenes； as he advanced towards manhood； perceived with indignation the conduct of his guardians； for which he resolved to make them answerable when the proper opportunity should arrive； by accusing them himself。 His first attempt to speak in public proved a failure； and he retired from the bema amidst the hootings and laughter of the citizens。 The more judicious and candid among his auditors perceived； however； marks of genius in his speech； and rightly attributed his failure to timidity and want of due preparation。 Eunomus； an aged citizen； who met him wandering about the Piraeus in a state of dejection at his ill success； bade him take courage and persevere。 Demosthenes now withdrew awhile from public life； and devoted himself perseveringly to remedy his defects。 They were such as might be lessened； if not removed； by practice； and consisted chiefly of a weak voice； imperfect articulation； and ungraceful and inappropriate action。 He derived much assistance from Satyrus the actor； who exercised him in reciting passages from Sophocles and Euripides。 He studied the best rhetorical treatises and orations； and is said to have copied the work of Thucydides with his own hand no fewer than eight times。 He shut himself up for two or three months together in a subterranean chamber in order to practise composition and declamation。 His perseverance was crowned with success； and he who on the first attempt had descended from the bema amid the ridicule of the crowd； became at last the most perfect orator the world has ever seen。
Demosthenes had established himself as a public speaker before the period which we have now reached； but it is chiefly in connexion with Philip that we are to view him as a statesman as well as an orator。 Philip had shown his ambition by the conquest of Thessaly； and by the part he had taken in the Sacred War； and Demosthenes now began to regard him as the enemy of the liberties of Athens and of Greece。 In his first 〃Philippic〃 Demosthenes tried to rouse his countrymen to energetic measures against this formidable enemy； but his warnings and exhortations produced little effect； for the Athenians were no longer distinguished by the same spirit of enterprise which had characterized them in the days of their supremacy。 No important step was taken to curb the growing power of Philip； and it was the danger of Olynthus which first induced the Athenians to prosecute the war with a little more energy。 In 350 B。C。； Philip having captured a town in Chalcidice； Olynthus began to tremble for her own safety； and sent envoys to Athens to crave assistance。 Olynthus was still at the head of thirty…two Greek towns； and the confederacy was a sort of counterpoise to the power of Philip。 It was on this occasion that Demosthenes delivered his three Olynthaic orations； in which he warmly advoca