y Alexander in person； who rushed impetuously into the water； and was soon engaged in close combat with the Persians。 The latter were immediately routed； but what chiefly decided the fortune of the day was the timidity of Darius himself； who； on beholding the defeat of his left wing； immediately took to flight。 His example was followed by his whole army。 One hundred thousand Persians are said to have been left upon the field。 On reaching the hills Darius threw aside his royal robes his bow and shield； and； mounting a fleet courser； was soon out of reach of pursuit。 The Persian camp became the spoil of the Macedonians； but the tent of Darius； together with his chariot； robes； and arms； was reserved for Alexander himself。 It was now that the Macedonian king first had ocular proof of the nature of Eastern royalty。 One compartment of the tent of Darius had been fitted up as a bath； which steamed with the richest odours； whilst another presented a magnificent pavilion； containing a table richly spread for the banquet of Darius。 But from an adjoining tent issued the wail of female voices； where Sisygambis the mother； and Statira the wife of Darius； were lamenting the supposed death of the Persian monarch。 Alexander sent to assure them of his safety； and ordered them to be treated with the most delicate and respectful attention。
Such was the memorable battle of Issus； fought in November； B。C。 333。 A large treasure which Parmenio was sent forward with a detachment to seize； fell into the hands of the Macedonians at Damascus。 Another favourable result of the victory was that it suppressed some attempts at revolt from the Macedonian power； which with the support of Persia； had been manifested in Greece。 But； in order to put a complete stop to all such intrigues； which chiefly depended on the assistance of a Persian fleet； Alexander resolved to seize Phoenicia and Egypt； and thus to strike at the root of the Persian maritime power。
Meanwhile； Darius； attended by a body of only 4000 fugitives； had crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus。 Before he had set out from Babylon the whole forces of the empire had been summoned； but he had not thought it worth while to wait for what he deemed a merely useless encumbrance； and the more distant levies； which comprised some of the best troops of the empire； were still hastening towards Babylon。 In a short time； therefore； he would be at the head of a still more numerous host than that which had fought at Issus； yet he thought it safer to open negotiations with Alexander than to trust to the chance of arms。 With this view he sent a letter to Alexander； who was now at Marathus in Phoenicia； proposing to become his friend and ally； but Alexander rejected all his overtures； and told him that he must in future be addressed not in the language of an equal； but of a subject。
As Alexander advanced southwards； all the towns of Phoenicia hastened to open their gates； the inhabitants of Sidon even hailed him as their deliverer。 Tyre； also； sent to tender her submission； but coupled with reservations by no means acceptable to a youthful conqueror in the full tide of success。 Alexander affected to receive their offer as an unconditional surrender； and told them that he would visit their city and offer sacrifices to Melcart； a Tyrian deity； who was considered as identical with the Grecian Hercules。 This brought the matter to an issue。 The Tyrians now informed him that they could not admit any foreigners within their walls； and that； if he wished to sacrifice to Melcart； he would find another and more ancient shrine in Old Tyre； on the mainland。 Alexander indignantly dismissed the Tyrian ambassadors； and announced his intention of laying siege to their city。 The Tyrians probably deemed it impregnable。 It was by nature a place of great strength； and had been rendered still stronger by art。 The island on which it stood was half a mile distant from the mainland； and though the channel was shallow near the coast； it deepened to three fathoms near the island。 The shores of the island were rocky and precipitous； and the walls rose from the cliffs to the height of 150 feet in solid masonry。 As Alexander possessed no ships； the only method by which he could approach the town was by constructing a causeway； the materials for which were collected from the forests of Libanus and the ruins of Old Tyre。 After overcoming many difficulties the mole was at length pushed to the foot of the walls； and as soon as Alexander had effected a practicable breach； he ordered a general assault both by land and sea。 The breach was stormed under the immediate inspection of Alexander himself； and though the Tyrians made a desperate resistance； they were at length overpowered； when the city became one wide scene of indiscriminate carnage and plunder。 The siege had lasted seven months； and the Macedonians were so exasperated by the difficulties and dangers they had undergone that they granted no quarter。 Eight thousand of the citizens are said to have been massacred； and the remainder； with the exception of the king and some of the principal men； who had taken refuge in the temple of Melcart； were sold into slavery to the number of 30；000。 Tyre was taken in the month of July in 332。
Whilst Alexander was engaged in the siege of Tyre； Darius made him further and more advantageous proposals。 He now offered 10；000 talents as the ransom of his family； together with all the Provinces west of the Euphrates； and his daughter Barsine in marriage； as the conditions of a peace。 When these offers were submitted to the council Parmenio was not unnaturally struck with their magnificence； and observed； that were he Alexander he would accept them。 〃and so would I；〃 replied the king； 〃were I Parmenio。〃 Darius； therefore； prepared himself for a desperate resistance。
After the fall of Tyre； Alexander marched with his army towards Egypt； whilst his fleet proceeded along the coast。 Gaza； a strong fortress on the sea…shore； obstinately held out； and delayed his progress three or four months。 After the capture of this city Alexander met his fleet at Pelusium； and ordered it to sail up the Nile as far as Memphis； whither he himself marched with his army across the desert。 He conciliated the affection of the Egyptians by the respect with which he treated their national superstitions； whilst the Persians by an opposite line of conduct had incurred their deadliest hatred。 He then sailed down the western branch of the Nile； and at its mouth traced the plan of the new city of Alexandria； which for many centuries continued to be not only the grand emporium of Europe； Africa； and India； but also the principal centre of intellectual life。 Being now on the confines of Libya； Alexander resolved to visit the celebrated oracle of Zeus （Jupiter） Ammon； which lay in the bosom of the Libyan wilderness。 The conqueror was received by the priests with all the honours of sacred pomp。 He consulted the oracle in secret； and is said never to have disclosed the answer which he received； though that it was an answer that contented him appeared from the magnificence of the offerings which he made to the god。 Some say that Ammon saluted him as the son of Zeus。
Alexander returned to Phoenicia in the spring of 331。 He then directed his march through Samaria； and arrived at Thapsacus on the Euphrates about the end of August。 after crossing the river he struck to the north…east through a fertile and well…supplied country。 On his march he was told that Darius was posted with an immense force on the left bank of the Tigris； but on arriving at that river he found nobody to dispute his passage。 He then proceeded southwards along its banks； and after four days' march fell in with a few squadrons of the enemy's cavalry。 From some of these who were made prisoners Alexander learned that Darius was encamped with his host on one of the extensive plains between the Tigris and the mountains of Kurdistan； near a village called Gaugamela （the Camel's House）。 The town of Arbela； after which the battle that ensued is commonly named； lay at about twenty miles distance； and there Darius had deposited his baggage and treasure。 That monarch had been easily persuaded that his former defeat was owing solely to the nature of the ground； and； therefore； he now selected a wide plain for an engagement； where there was abundant room for his multitudinous infantry； and for the evolutions of his horsemen and charioteers。 Alexander； after giving his army a few days' rest； set out to meet the enemy soon after midnight； in order that he might come up with them about daybreak。 On ascending some sand…hills the whole array of the Persians suddenly burst upon the view of the Macedonians； at the distance of three or four miles。 Darius； as usual； occupied the centre； surrounded by his body…guard and chosen troops。 In front of the royal position were ranged the war…chariots and elephants； and on either side the Greek mercenaries； to the number； it is said； of 50；000。 Alexander spent the first day in surveying the ground and preparing for the attack； he also addressed his troops； pointing out to them that the prize of victory would not be a mere province； but the dominion of all Asia。