you had heard Demosthenes。〃
The remaining three Attic orators； viz。 LYCURGUS； HYPERIDES； and DINARCHUS； were contemporaries of Demosthenes。 Lycurgus and Hyperides both belonged to the anti…Macedonian party； and were warm supporters of the policy of Demosthenes。 Dinarchus； who is the least important of the Attic orators； survived Demosthenes； and was a friend of Demetrius Phalereus。
The history of Greek PHILOSOPHY； like that of Greek poetry and history； began in Asia Minor。 The earliest philosopher of distinction was THALES of Miletus； who was born about B。C。 640； and died in 554 at the age of 90。 He was the founder of the IONIC school of philosophy； and to him were traced the first beginnings of geometry and astronomy。 The main doctrine of his philosophical system was； that water； or fluid substance was the single original element from which everything came and into which everything returned。 ANAXIMANDER； the successor of Thales in the Ionic school； lived from B。C。 610 to 547。 He was distinguished for his knowledge of astronomy and geography； and is said to have been the first to introduce the use of the sun…dial into Greece。 ANAXIMENES； the third in the series of the Ionian philosophers； lived a little later than Anaximander。 He endeavoured； like Thales； to derive the origin of all material things from a single element； and； according to his theory； air was the source of life。
A new path was struck out by ANAXAGORAS Of Clazomenae； the most illustrious of the Ionic philosophers。 He came to Athens in 480 B。C。； where he continued to teach for thirty years； numbering among his hearers Pericles； Socrates； and Euripides。 He abandoned the system of his predecessors； and； instead of regarding some elementary form of matter as the origin of all things； he conceived a supreme mind or intelligence； distinct from the visible world； to have imparted form and order to the chaos of nature。 These innovations afforded the Athenians a pretext for indicting Anaxagoras of impiety； though it is probable that his connexion with Pericles was the real cause of that proceeding （see Ch。IX）。 It was only through the influence and eloquence of Pericles that he was not put to death； but he was sentenced to pay a fine of five talents and quit Athens。 The philosopher retired to Lampsacus； where he died at the age of 72。
The second school of Greek philosophy was the ELEATIC which derived its name from Elea or Velia； a Greek colony on the western coast of Southern Italy。 It was founded by XENOPHANES of Colophon； who fled to Elea on the conquest of his native land by the Persians。 He conceived the whole of nature to be God。
The third school of philosophy was the PYTHAGOREAN； founded by PYTHAGORAS。 He was a native of Samos and was born about B。C。 580。 His father was an opulent merchant； and Pythagoras himself travelled extensively in the East。 He believed in the transmigration of souls； and later writers relate that Pythagoras asserted that his own soul had formerly dwelt in the body of the Trojan Euphorbus； the son of Panthous； who was slain by Menelaus； and that in proof of his assertion he took down； at first sight；the shield of Euphorbus from the temple of Hera （Juno） at Argos； where it had been dedicated by Menelaus。 Pythagoras was distinguished by his knowledge of geometry and arithmetic； and it was probably from his teaching that the Pythagoreans were led to regard numbers in some mysterious manner as the basis and essence of all things。 He was however more of the religious teacher than of the philosopher； and he looked upon himself as a being destined by the gods to reveal to his disciples a new and a purer mode of life。 He founded at Croton in Italy a kind of religious brotherhood； the members of which were bound together by peculiar rites and observances。 Everything done and taught in the fraternity was kept a profound secret from all without its pale。 It appears that the members had some private signs； like Freemasons； by which they could recognise each other； even if they had never met before。 His doctrines spread rapidly over Magna Graecia； and clubs of a similar character were established at Sybaris； Metapontum； Tarentum； and other cities。
At Athens a new direction was given to the study of philosophy by Socrates； of whom an account has been already given。 To his teaching either directly of indirectly may be traced the origin of the four principal Grecian schools： the ACADEMICIANS； established by Plato； the PERIPATETICS； founded by his pupil Aristotle； the EPICUREANS； so named from their master Epicurus； and the STOICS； founded by Zeno。
PLATO was born at Athens in 429 B。C。； the year in which Pericles died。 His first literary attempts were in poetry； but his attention was soon turned to philosophy by the teaching of Socrates； whose lectures he began to frequent at about the age of twenty。 From that time till the death of Socrates he appears to have lived in the closest intimacy with that philosopher。 After that event Plato withdrew to Megara； and subsequently undertook some extensive travels； in the course of which he visited Cyrene； Egypt； Sicily； and Magna Graecia。 His intercourse with the elder and the younger Dionysius at Syracuse has been already related His absence from Athens lasted about twelve years； on his return； being then upwards of forty； he began to teach in the gymnasium of the Academy。 His doctrines were too recondite for the popular ear； and his lectures were not very numerously attended。 But he had a narrower circle of devoted admirers and disciples； consisting of about twenty…eight persons； who met in his private house； over the vestibule of which was inscribed〃Let no one enter who is ignorant of geometry。〃 The most distinguished of this little band of auditors were Speusippus； his nephew and successor； and Aristotle。 He died in 347； at the age of 81 or 82； and bequeathed his garden to his school。
ARISTOTLE was born in 381 B。C。； at Stagira； a seaport town of Chalcidice； whence he is frequently called THE STAGIRITE。 At the age of 17； Aristotle； who had then lost both father and mother； repaired to Athens。 Plato considered him his best scholar； and called him 〃the intellect of his school。〃 Aristotle spent twenty years at Athens； during the last ten of which he established a school of his own。 In 342 he accepted the invitation of Philip of Macedon to undertake the instruction of his son Alexander。 In 335； after Alexander had ascended the throne； Aristotle quitted Macedonia； to which he never returned。 He again took up his abode at Athens； where the Athenians assigned him the gymnasium called the Lyceum； and from his habit of delivering his lectures whilst walking up and down in the shady walks of this place； his school was called the PERIPATETIC。 In the morning he lectured only to a select class of pupils； called ESOTERIC。 His afternoon lectures were delivered to a wider circle； and were therefore called EXOTERIC。 It was during the thirteen years in which he presided over the Lyceum that he composed the greater part of his works； and prosecuted his researches in natural history； in which he was most liberally assisted by the munificence of Alexander。 The latter portion of Aristotle's life was unfortunate。 He appears to have lost from some unknown cause the friendship of Alexander； and； after the death of that monarch； the disturbances which ensued in Greece proved unfavourable to his peace and security。 Being threatened with a prosecution for impiety； he escaped from Athens and retired to Chalcis； but he was condemned to death in his absence； and deprived of all the rights and honours which he had previously enjoyed。 He died at Chalcis in 322； in the 63rd year of his age。
Of all the philosophical systems of antiquity； that of Aristotle was best adapted to the practical wants of mankind。 It was founded on a close and accurate observation of human nature and of the external world； but whilst it sought the practical and useful； it did not neglect the beautiful and noble。 His works consisted of treatises on natural； moral and political philosophy； history； rhetoric； criticism； &c；； indeed there is scarcely a branch of knowledge which his vast and comprehensive genius did not embrace。
EPICURUS was born at Samos in 342； and settled at Athens at about the age of 35。 Here he purchased a garden； where he established his philosophical school。 He taught that pleasure is the highest good； a tenet； however； which he explained and dignified by showing that it was mental pleasure that he intended。 The ideas of atheism and sensual degradation with which the name of Epicurus has been so frequently coupled are founded on ignorance of his real teaching。 But as he denied the immortality of the soul； and the interference of the gods in human affairs；though he held their existence；his tenets were very liable to be abused by those who had not sufficient elevation of mind to love virtue for its own sake。
ZENO was a native of Citium in the island of Cyprus； and settled at Athens about B。C。 299。 Here he opened a school in the Poecile Stoa； or painted porch； whence the name of his sect。 He inculcated temperance and self…denial； and his practice was in accordance with his precept。