penetrating intellect of Aristotle failed to suggest to him that in
holding the eternity of the world； within its present range of
mutation； he was making a retrogressive step。 The scientific heritage
of Heracleitus passed into the hands neither of Plato nor of
Aristotle； but into those of Democritus。 But the world was not yet
ready to receive the great conceptions of the philosopher of Abdera。
It was reserved for the Stoics to return to the track marked out by
the earlier philosophers； and； professing themselves disciples of
Heracleitus； to develop the idea of evolution systematically。 In doing
this； they not only omitted some characteristic features of their
master's teaching； but they made additions altogether foreign to it。
One of the most influential of these importations was the
transcendental ＇71＇ theism which had come into vogue。 The restless；
fiery energy； operating according to law； out of which all things
emerge and into which they return； in the endless successive cycles of
the great year； which creates and destroys worlds as a wanton child
builds up； and anon levels； sand castles on the seashore； was
metamorphosed into a material world…soul and decked out with all the
attributes of ideal Divinity； not merely with infinite power and
transcendent wisdom； but with absolute goodness。
The consequences of this step were momentous。 For if the cosmos is the
effect of an immanent； omnipotent； and infinitely beneficent cause；
the existence in it of real evil； still less of necessarily inherent
evil； is plainly inadmissible。 ＇Note 13＇ Yet the universal experience
of mankind testified then； as now； that； whether we look within us or
without us； evil stares us in the face on all sides； that if anything
is real； pain and sorrow and wrong are realities。
It would be a new thing in history if a priori philosophers were
daunted by the factious opposition of experience； and the Stoics were
the last men to allow themselves to be beaten by mere facts。 〃Give me
a doctrine and I will find the reasons for it；〃 said Chrysippus。 So
they perfected； if they did not invent； that ingenious and plausible
form of pleading； the Theodicy； for the purpose of showing firstly；
that there is no such ＇72＇ thing as evil； secondly； that if there is；
it is the necessary correlate of good； and； moreover； that it is
either due to our own fault； or inflicted for our benefit。 Theodicies
have been very popular in their time； and I believe that a numerous；
though somewhat dwarfed； progeny of them still survives。 So far as I
know； they are all variations of the theme set forth in those famous
six lines of the 〃Essay on Man；〃 in which Pope sums up Bolingbroke's
reminiscences of stoical and other speculations of this kind
〃All nature is but art； unknown to thee；
All chance； direction which thou canst not see；
All discord； harmony not understood；
All partial evil； universal good；
And spite of pride； in erring reason's spite；
One truth is clear： whatever is is right。〃
Yet； surely； if there are few more important truths than those
enunciated in the first triad； the second is open to very grave
objections。 That there is a 〃soul of good in things evil〃 is
unquestionable； nor will any wise man deny the disciplinary value of
pain and sorrow。 But these considerations do not help us to see why
the immense multitude of irresponsible sentient beings； which cannot
profit by such discipline； should suffer； nor why； among the endless
possibilities open to omnipotencethat of sinless； happy existence
among the restthe actuality in which sin and misery abound should be
that selected。
＇73＇ Surely it is mere cheap rhetoric to call arguments which have
never yet been answered by even the meekest and the least rational of
Optimists； suggestions of the pride of reason。 As to the concluding
aphorism； its fittest place would be as an inscription in letters of
mud over the portal of some 〃stye of Epicurus〃＇Note 14＇； for that is
where the logical application of it to practice would land men； with
every aspiration stifled and every effort paralyzed。 Why try to set
right what is right already？ Why strive to improve the best of all
possible worlds？ Let us eat and drink； for as today all is right； so
to…morrow all will be。
But the attempt of the Stoics to blind themselves to the reality of
evil； as a necessary concomitant of the cosmic process； had less
success than that of the Indian philosophers to exclude the reality of
good from their purview。 Unfortunately； it is much easier to shut
one's eyes to good than to evil。 Pain and sorrow knock at our doors
more loudly than pleasure and happiness； and the prints of their heavy
footsteps are less easily effaced。 Before the grim realities of
practical life the pleasant fictions of optimism vanished。 If this
were the best of all possible worlds； it nevertheless proved itself a
very inconvenient habitation for the ideal sage。
The stoical summary of the whole duty of man； 〃Live according to
nature；〃 would seem to imply that the cosmic process is an exemplar
for human ＇74＇ conduct。 Ethics would thus become applied Natural
History。 In fact； a confused employment of the maxim； in this sense；
has done immeasurable mischief in later times。 It has furnished an
axiomatic foundation for the philosophy of philosophasters and for the
moralizing of sentimentalists。 But the Stoics were； at bottom； not
merely noble； but sane； men； and if we look closely into what they
really meant by this ill…used phrase； it will be found to present no
justification for the mischievous conclusions that have been deduced
from it。
In the language of the Stoa； 〃Nature〃 was a word of many meanings。
There was the 〃Nature〃 of the cosmos and the 〃Nature〃 of man。 In the
latter； the animal 〃nature；〃 which man shares with a moiety of the
living part of the cosmos； was distinguished from a higher 〃nature。〃
Even in this higher nature there were grades of rank。 The logical
faculty is an instrument which may be turned to account for any
purpose。 The passions and the emotions are so closely tied to the
lower nature that they may be considered to be pathological； rather
than normal； phenomena。 The one supreme； hegemonic； faculty； which
constitutes the essential 〃nature〃 of man； is most nearly represented
by that which； in the language of a later philosophy； has been called
the pure reason。 It is this 〃nature〃 which holds up the ideal of the
supreme good and demands absolute submission of the will to its
behests。 It is ＇75＇ which commands all men to love one another； to
return good for evil； to regard one another as fellow…citizens of one
great state。 Indeed； seeing that the progress towards perfection of a
civilized state； or polity； depends on the obedience of its members to
these commands； the Stoics sometimes termed the pure reason the
〃political〃 nature。 Unfortunately； the sense of the adjective has
undergone so much modification； that the application of it to that
which commands the sacrifice of self to the common good would now
sound almost grotesque。 ＇Note 15＇
But what part is played by the theory of evolution in this view of
ethics？ So far as I can discern； the ethical system of the Stoics；
which is essentially intuitive； and reverences the categorical
imperative as strongly as that of any later moralists； might have been
just what it was if they had held any other theory； whether that of
special creation； on the one side； or that of the eternal existence of
the present order； on the other。＇Note 16＇ To the Stoic； the cosmos had
no importance for the conscience； except in so far as he chose to
think it a pedagogue to virtue。 The pertinacious optimism of our
philosophers hid from them the actual state of the case。 It prevented
them from seeing that cosmic nature is no school of virtue； but the
headquarters of the enemy of ethical nature。 The logic of facts was
necessary to convince them ＇76＇ that the cosmos works through the
lower nature of man； not for righteousness； but against it。 And it
finally drove them to confess that the existence of their ideal 〃wise
man〃 was incompatible with the nature of things； that even a passable
approximation to that ideal was to be attained only at the cost of
renunciation of the world and mortification； not merely of the flesh；
but of all human affections。 The state of perfection was that
〃apatheia〃＇Note 17＇ in which desire； though it may still be felt； is
powerless to move the will； reduced to the sole function of executing
the commands of pure reason。 Even this residuum of activity was to be
regarded as a temporary loan； as an efflux of the divine
world…pervading spirit； chafing at its imprisonment in the
flesh；…until such time as death enabled it to return to its source in
the all…pervading logos。
I find it difficult to discover any very great difference between
Apatheia and Nirvana； except that stoical speculation agrees with
pre…Buddhistic philosophy； rather than with the teachings of Gautama；
in so far as it postulates a permanent substance equivalent to
〃Brahma〃 and 〃Atman；〃 and that； in stoical practice； the adoption of
the life of the mendicant cynic was held to be mor