decay； and death； grief； lamentation； and despair will have come； so
far as regards that chain of lives； for ever to an end。〃
The state of mind of the Arahat in which the desire of life has ceased
is Nirvana。 Dr。 Oldenberg has very acutely and patiently considered
the various interpretations which have been attached to 〃Nirvana〃 in
the work to which I have referred （pp。 285 et seq。）。 The result of his
and other discussions of the question may I think be briefly stated
thus：
1。 Logical deduction from the predicates attached to the term
〃Nirvana〃 strips it of all reality； conceivability； or perceivability；
whether by Gods or men。 For all practical purposes； therefore； it
comes to exactly the same thing as annihilation。
2。 But it is not annihilation in the ordinary sense； inasmuch as it
could take place in the living Arahat or Buddha。
3。 And； since； for the faithful Buddhist； that which was abolished in
the Arahat was the possibility of further pain； sorrow； or sin； and
that which was attained was perfect peace； his mind directed itself
exclusively to this joyful consummation； and personified the negation
of all conceivable existence and of all pain into a positive bliss。
This was all the more easy； as Gautama refused to give any dogmatic
definition of Nirvana。 There is something analogous in the way in
which people commonly talk of the 〃happy release〃 of a man who has
been long suffering from mortal disease。 According to their own views；
it must always be extremely doubtful whether the man will be any
happier after the 〃release〃 ＇103＇ than before。 But they do not choose
to look at the matter in this light。
The popular notion that； with practical； if not metaphysical；
annihilation in view； Buddhism must needs be a sad and gloomy faith
seems to be inconsistent with fact； on the contrary； the prospect of
Nirvana fills the true believer； not merely with cheerfulness； but
with an ecstatic desire to reach it。
Note 10 （P。 68。）
The influence of the picture of the personal qualities of Gautama；
afforded by the legendary anecdotes which rapidly grew into a
biography of the Buddha； and by the birth stories； which coalesced
with the current folk…lore； and were intelligible to all the world；
doubtless played a great part。 Further； although Gautama appears not
to have meddled with the caste system； he refused to recognize any
distinction； save that of perfection in the way of salvation； among
his followers； and by such teaching； no less than by the inculcation
of love and benevolence to all sentient beings； he practically
levelled every social； political； and racial barrier。 A third
important condition was the organization of the Buddhists into
monastic communities for the stricter professors； while the laity were
permitted a wide indulgence in practice and were allowed to hope for
accommodation in some of the temporary abodes of bliss。 With a few
hundred thousand years of immediate paradise in sight； the average man
could be content to shut his eyes to what might follow。
＇104＇
Note 11 （P。 69）。
In ancient times it was the fashion； even among the Greeks themselves；
to derive all Greek wisdom from Eastern sources； not long ago it was
as generally denied that Greek philosophy had any connection； with
Oriental speculation； it seems probable； however； that the truth lies
between these extremes。
The Ionian intellectual movement does not stand alone。 It is only one
of several sporadic indications of the working of some powerful mental
ferment over the whole of the area comprised between the Aegean and
Northern Hindostan during the eighth； seventh； and sixth centuries
before our era。 In these three hundred years； prophetism attained its
apogee among the Semites of Palestine； Zoroasterism grew and became
the creed of a conquering race； the Iranic Aryans； Buddhism rose and
spread with marvellous rapidity among the Aryans of Hindostan； while
scientific naturalism took its rise among the Aryans of Ionia。 It
would be difficult to find another three centuries which have given
birth to four events of equal importance。 All the principal existing
religions of mankind have grown out of the first three： while the
fourth is the little spring； now swollen into the great stream of
positive science。 So far as physical possibilities go； the prophet
Jeremiah and the oldest Ionian philosopher might have met and
conversed。 If they had done so； they would probably have disagreed a
good deal； and it is interesting to reflect that their discussions
might have ＇105＇ embraced Questions which； at the present day； are
still hotly controverted。
The old Ionian philosophy； then； seems to be only one of many results
of a stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the Aryan and the
Semitic populations of Western Asia。 The conditions of this general
awakening were doubtless manifold； but there is one which modern
research has brought into great prominence。 This is the existence of
extremely ancient and highly advanced societies in the valleys of the
Euphrates and of the Nile。
It is now known that； more than a thousandperhaps more than two
thousandyears before the sixth century B。C。； civilization had
attained a relatively high pitch among the Babylonians and the
Egyptians。 Not only had painting； sculpture； architecture； and the
industrial arts reached a remarkable development； but in Chaldaea； at
any rate； a vast amount of knowledge had been accumulated and
methodized； in the departments of grammar； mathematics； astronomy； and
natural history。 Where such traces of the scientific spirit are
visible； naturalistic speculation is rarely far off； though； so far as
I know； no remains of an Accacian； or Egyptian； philosophy； properly
so called； have yet been recovered。
Geographically； Chaldaea occupied a central position among the oldest
seats of civilization。 Commerce； largely aided by the intervention of
those colossal pedlars； the Phoenicians； had brought Chaldaea into
connection with all of them； for a thousand years before the epoch at
present under consideration。 And in the ninth； eighth and seventh
＇106＇ centuries； the Assyrian； the depositary of Chaldaean
civilization； as the Macedonian and the Roman； at a later date； were
the depositories of Greek culture； had added irresistible force to the
other agencies for the wide distribution of Chaldaean literature； art；
and science。
I confess that I find it difficult to imagine that the Greek
immigrantwho stood in somewhat the same relation to the Babylonians
and the Egyptians as the later Germanic barbarians to the Romans of
the Empireshould not have been immensely influenced by the new life
with which they became acquainted。 But there is abundant direct
evidence of the magnitude of this influence in certain spheres。 I
suppose it is not doubted that the Greek went to school with the
Oriental for his primary instruction in reading； writing； and
arithmetic； and that Semitic theology supplied him with some of his
mythological lore。 Nor does there now seem to be any question about
the large indebtedness of Greek art to that of Chaldaea and that of
Egypt。
But the manner of that indebtedness is very instructive。 The obligation
is clear； but its limits are no less definite。 Nothing better
exemplifies the indomitable originality of the Greeks than the
relations of their art to that of the Orientals。 Far from being
subdued into mere imitators by the technical excellence of their
teachers； they lost no time in bettering the instruction they
received； using their models as mere stepping stones on the way to
those unsurpassed and unsurpassable achievements which are all their
own。 The shibboleth of Art is ＇107＇ the human figure。 The ancient
Chaldaeans and Egyptians； like the modern Japanese； did wonders in the
representation of birds and quadrupeds； they even attained to
something more than respectability in human portraiture。 But their
utmost efforts never brought them within range of the best Greek
embodiments of the grace of womanhood； or of the severer beauty of
manhood。
It is worth while to consider the probable effect upon the acute and
critical Greek mind of the conflict of ideas； social； political； and
theological； which arose out of the conditions of life in the Asiatic
colonies。 The Ionian polities had passed through the whole gamut of
social and political changes； from patriarchal and occasionally
oppressive kingship to rowdy and still more burdensome mobshipno
doubt with infinitely eloquent and copious argumentation； on both
sides； at every stage of their progress towards that arbitrament of
force which settles most political questions。 The marvellous
speculative faculty； latent in the Ionian； had come in contact with
Mesopotamian； Egyptian； Phoenician theologies and cosmogonies； with
the illuminati of Orphism and the fanatics and dreamers of the
Mysteries； possibly with Buddhism and Zoroasterism； possibly even with
Judaism。 And it has been observed that the mutual contradictions of
antagonistic supernaturalisms are apt to play a large part among the
generative agencies of naturalism。
Thus； various external influences may have contributed to the rise of
philosophy am