and other marine animals； and might； like Proteus； shepherd the flocks
of Poseidon if they had a mind for pastoral life。 But the seals and
the bears are dependent on other inhabitants of the sea； until；
somewhere in the series； we come to the minute green plants which
float in the ocean； and are the real 〃producers〃 by which the whole of
its vast animal population is supported。* Thus； when we find set forth
as an 〃absolute〃 ＇158＇ truth the statement that the essential factors
in economic production are land； capital and labourwhen this is
offered as an axiom whence all sorts of other important truths may be
deducedit is needful to remember that the assertion is true only
with a qualification。 Undoubtedly 〃vital capital〃 is essential； for；
as we have seen； no human work can be done unless it exists； not even
that internal work of the body which is necessary to passive life。
But； with respect to labour （that is； human labour） I hope to have
left no doubt on the reader's mind that； in regard to production； the
importance of human labour may be so small as to be almost a vanishing
quantity。 Moreover； it is certain that there is no approximation to a
fixed ratio between the expenditure of labour and the production of
that vital capital which is the foundation of all wealth。 For； suppose
that we introduce into our suppositious pastoral paradise beasts of
prey and rival shepherds； the amount of labour thrown upon the
sheep…owner may increase almost indefinitely； and its importance as a
condition of production may be enormously augmented； while the
quantity of produce remains stationary。 Compare for a moment the
unimportance of the shepherd's labour； under the circumstances first
defined； with its indispensability in countries in which the water for
the sheep has to be drawn from deep ＇159＇ wells； or in which the flock
has to be defended from wolves or from human depredators。 As to land；
it has been shown that； except as affording mere room and standing
ground； the importance of land； great as it may be； is secondary。 The
one thing needful for economic production is the green plant； as the
sole producer of vital capital from natural inorganic bodies。 Men
might exist without labour （in the ordinary sense） and without land；
without plants they must inevitably perish。
* In some remarkable passages of the Botany of Sir James Ross's
Antarctic voyage； which took place half a century ago； Sir
Joseph Hooker demonstrated the dependence of the animal life of
the sea upon the minute； indeed microscopic； plants which float
in it： a marvellous example of what may be done by
water…culture。 One might indulge in dreams of cultivating and
improving diatoms； until the domesticated bore the same
relation to the wild forms； as cauliflowers to the primitive
Brassica oleracea； without passing beyond the limits of fair
scientific speculation。
That which is true of the purely pastoral condition is a fortiori true
of the purely agricultural* condition； in which the existence of the
cultivator is directly dependent on the production of vital capital by
the plants which he cultivates。 Here； again； the condition precedent
of the work of each year is vital capital。 Suppose that a man lives
exclusively upon the plants which he cultivates。 It is obvious that he
must have food…stuffs to live upon； while he prepares the soil for
sowing and throughout the period which elapses between this and
harvest。 These food…stuffs must be yielded by the stock remaining over
from former crops。 The result is the same as beforethe pre…existence
of vital capital is the necessary antecedent of labour。 Moreover； the
amount of labour which contributes； as an accessory condition； to the
production ＇160＇ of the crop varies as widely in the case of
plant…raising as in that of cattle…raising。 With favourable soil；
climate and other conditions； it may be very small； with unfavourable；
very great； for the same revenue or yield of food…stuffs。
* It is a pity that we have no word that signifies plant…culture
exclusively。 But for the present purpose I may restrict
agriculture to that sense。
Thus； I do not think it is possible to dispute the following
proposition： the existence of any man； or of any number of men；
whether organised into a polity or not； depends on the production of
foodstuffs （that is； vital capital） readily accessible to man； either
directly or indirectly； by plants。 But it follows that the number of
men who can exist； say for one year； on any given area of land； taken
by itself； depends upon the quantity of food…stuffs produced by such
plants growing on the area in one year。 If a is that quantity； and b
the minimum of food…stuffs required for each man； A/B=N； the maximum
number of men who can exist on the area。 Now the amount of production
（a） is limited by the extent of area occupied； by the quantity of
sunshine which falls upon the area； by the range and distribution of
temperature； by the force of the winds； by the supply of water； by the
composition and the physical characters of the soil； by animal and
vegetable competitors and destroyers。 The labour of man neither does；
nor can； produce vital capital； all that it can do is to modify；
favourably or unfavourably； the conditions of its production。 The most
important of these ＇161＇ namely； sunshine； range of daily and
nightly temperature； windare practically out of men's reach。* On the
other hand； the supply of water； the physical and chemical qualities
of the soil； and the influences of competitors and destroyers； can
often； though by no means always； be largely affected by labour and
skill。 And there is no harm in calling the effect of such labour
〃production；〃 if it is clearly understood that 〃production〃 in this
sense is a very different thing from the 〃production〃 of food…stuffs
by a plant。
* I do not forget electric lighting； greenhouses and hothouses；
and the various modes of affording shelter against violent
winds： but in regard to production of food…stuffs on the large
scale they may be neglected。 Even if synthetic chemistry should
effect the construction of proteids； the Laborato ry will
hardly enter into competition with the Farm within any time
which the present generation need trouble itself about。
We have been dealing hitherto with suppositions the materials of which
are furnished by everyday experience； not with mere a priori
assumptions。 Our hypothetical solitary shepherd with his flock； or the
solitary farmer with his grain field； are mere bits of such
experience； cut out； as it were； for easy study。 Still borrowing from
daily experience； let us suppose that either sheep…owner or farmer；
for any reason that may be imagined； desires the help of one or more
other men； and that； in exchange for their labour； he offers so many
sheep； or quarts of milk； or pounds of ＇162＇ cheese； or so many
measures of grain； for a year's service。 I fail to discover any a
priori 〃rights of labour〃 in virtue of which these men may insist on
being employed； if they are not wanted。 But； on the other hand； I
think it is clear that there is only one condition upon which the
persons to whom the offer of these 〃wages〃 is made can accept it； and
that is that the things offered in exchange for a year's work shall
contain at least as much vital capital as a man uses up in doing the
year's work。 For no rational man could knowingly and willingly accept
conditions which necessarily involve starvation。 Therefore there is an
irreducible minimum of wages； it is such an amount of vital capital as
suffices to replace the inevitable consumption of the person hired。
Now； surely； it is beyond a doubt that these wages； whether at or
above the irreducible minimum； are paid out of the capital disposable
after the wants of the owner of the flock or of the crop of grain are
satisfied； and； from what has been said already； it follows that there
is a limit to the number of men； whether hired； or brought in any other
way； who can be maintained by the sheep owner or landowner out of his
own resources。 Since no amount of labour can produce an ounce of
foodstuff beyond the maximum producible by a limited number of plants；
under the most favourable circumstances in regard to those conditions
which are not affected by labour； it follows ＇163＇ that； if the number
of men to be fed increases indefinitely； a time must come when some
will have to starve。 That is the essence of the so…called Malthusian
doctrine； and it is a truth which； to my mind； is as plain as the
general proposition that a quantity which constantly increases will；
some time or other； exceed any greater quantity the amount of which is
fixed。
The foregoing considerations leave no doubt about the fundamental
condition of the existence of any polity； or organised society of men；
either in a purely pastoral or purely agricultural state； or in any
mixture of both states。 It must possess a store of vital capital to
start with； and the means of repairing the consumption of that capital
which takes place as a consequence of the work of the members of the
society。 And； if the polity occupies