ideals are nothing but chimeras； and philosophy a mere system of such
phantasms。 It is also opposed by the very different fancy that Ideas and ideals are
something far too excellent to have actuality； or something too impotent to
procure it for themselves。 This divorce between idea and reality is especially dear
to the analytic understanding which looks upon its own abstractions； dreams
though they are； as something true and real； and prides itself on the imperative
'ought'； which it takes especial pleasure in prescribing even on the field of politics。
As if the world had waited on it to learn how it ought to be； and was not！ For； if it
were as it ought to be； what would come of the precocious wisdom of that
'ought'？ When understanding turns this 'ought' against trivial external and
transitory objects； against social regulations or conditions； which very likely
possess a great relative importance for a certain time and special circles； it may
often be right。 In such a case the intelligent observer may meet much that fails to
satisfy the general requirements of right； for who is not acute enough to see a
great deal in his own surroundings which is really far from being as it ought to be？
But such acuteness is mistaken in the conceit that； when it examines these objects
and pronounces what they ought to be； it is dealing with questions of philosophic
science。 The object of philosophy is the Idea： and the Idea is not so impotent as
merely to have a right or an obligation to exist without actually existing。 The
object of philosophy is an actuality of which those objects； social regulations and
conditions； are only the superficial outside。
§7
Thus reflection … thinking things over … in a general way involves the principle
（which also means the beginning） of philosophy。 And when the reflective spirit
arose again in its independence in modern times； after the epoch of the Lutheran
Reformation； it did not； as in its beginnings among the Greeks； stand merely
aloof； in a world of its own； but at once turned its energies also upon the
apparently illimitable material of the phenomenal world。 In this way the name
philosophy came to be applied to all those branches of knowledge； which are
engaged in ascertaining the standard and Universal in the ocean of empirical
individualities； as well as in ascertaining the Necessary element； or Laws； to be
found in the apparent disorder of the endless masses of the fortuitous。 It thus
appears that modern philosophy derives its materials from our own personal
observations and perceptions of the external and internal world； from nature as
well as from the mind and heart of man； when both stand in the immediate
presence of the observer。
This principle of Experience carries with it the unspeakably important condition
that； in order to accept and believe any fact； we must be in contact with it； or； in
more exact terms； that we must find the fact united and combined with the
certainty of our own selves。 We must be in touch with our subject…matter；
whether it be by means of our external senses； or； else； by our profounder mind
and our intimate self…consciousness。 This principle is the same as that which has
in the present day been termed faith； immediate knowledge； the revelation in the
outward world； and； above all； in our own heart。
Those sciences； which thus got the name of philosophy； we call empirical
sciences； for the reason that they take their departure from experience。 Still the
essential results which they aim at and provide are laws； general propositions； a
theory … the thoughts of what is found existing。 On this ground the Newtonian
physics was called Natural Philosophy。 Hugo Grotius； again； by putting together
and comparing the behaviour of states towards each other as recorded in history；
succeeded； with the help of the ordinary methods of general reasoning； in laying
down certain general principles； and establishing a theory which may be termed
the Philosophy of International Law。 In England this is still the usual signification
of the term philosophy。 Newton continues to be celebrated as the greatest of
philosophers： and the name goes down as far as the price…lists of
instrument…makers。 All instruments； such as the thermometer and barometer；
which do not come under the special head of magnetic or electric apparatus； are
styled philosophical instruments。 Surely thought； and not a mere combination of
wood； iron； etc。； ought to be called the instrument of philosophy！ The recent
science of Political Economy in particular； which in Germany is known as
Rational Economy of the State； or intelligent national economy； has in England
especially appropriated the name of philosophy。
§8
In its own field this empirical knowledge may at first give satisfaction； but in two
ways it is seen to come short。 In the first place there is another circle of objects
which it does not embrace。 These are Freedom； Spirit； and God。 They belong to
a different sphere； not because it can be said that they have nothing to do with
experience； for though they are certainly not experiences of the senses； it is quite
an identical proposition to say that whatever is in consciousness is experienced。
The real ground for assigning them to another field of cognition is that in their
scope and content these objects evidently show themselves as infinite。
There is an old phrase often wrongly attributed to Aristotle； and supposed to
express the general tenor of his philosophy。 Nihil est in intellectu quod non fuerit
in sensu： there is nothing in thought which has not been in sense and experience。
If speculative philosophy refused to admit this maxim； it can only have done so
from a misunderstanding。 It will； however； on the converse side no less assert：
Nihil est in sensu quod！ non fuerit in intellectu。 And this may be taken in two
senses。 In the general sense it means that nous or spirit （the more profound idea
of nous in modern thought） is the cause of the world。 In its special meaning （see §
2） it asserts that the sentiment of right； morals； and religion is a sentiment （and in
that way an experience） of such scope and such character that it can spring from
and rest upon thought alone。
§9
But in the second place in point of form the subjective reason desires a further
satisfaction than empirical knowledge gives； and this form is； in the widest sense
of the term； Necessity （§ 1）。 The method of empirical science exhibits two
defects。
The first is that the Universal or general principle contained in it； the genus； or
kind； etc。； is； on its own account； indeterminate and vague； and therefore not on
its own account connected with the Particulars or the details。 Either is external
and accidental to the other； and it is the same with the particular facts which are
brought into union： each is external and accidental to the others。
The second defect is that the beginnings are in every case data and postulates；
neither accounted for nor deduced。 In both these points the form of necessity fails
to get its due。 Hence reflection； whenever it sets itself to remedy these defects；
becomes speculative thinking； the thinking proper to philosophy。 As a species of
reflection； therefore； which； though it has a certain community of nature with the
reflection already mentioned； is nevertheless different from it； philosophic thought
thus possesses； in addition to the common forms； some forms of its own； of
which the Notion may be taken as the type。
The relation of speculative science to the other sciences may be stated in the
following terms。 It does not in the least neglect the empirical facts contained in the
several sciences； but recognises and adopts them： it appreciates and applies
towards its own structure the universal element in these sciences； their laws and
classifications： but besides all this； into the categories of science it introduces； and
gives currency to； other categories。 The difference； looked at in this way； is only
a change of categories。 Speculative Logic contains all previous Logic and
Metaphysics： it preserves the same forms of thought； the same laws and objects …
while at the same time remodelling and expanding them with wider categories。
From notion in the speculative sense we should distinguish what is ordinarily
called a notion。 The phrase； that no notion can ever comprehend the Infinite； a
phrase which has been repeated over and over again till it has grown axiomatic； is
based upon this narrow estimate of what is meant by notions。
§10
This thought； which is proposed as the instrument of philosophic knowledge；
itself calls for further explanation。 We must understand in what way it possesses
necessity or cogency： and when it claims to be equal to the task of apprehending
the absolute objects （God； Spirit； Freedom）； that claim must be substantiated。
Such an explanation； however； is itself a lesson in philosophy； and properly falls
within the scope of the science itself。 A preliminary attempt to make matters plain
would only be unphilosophical； a