avy and army flogging outraged the dignity of manhood。 The liability to this brutal and degrading punishment kept all but the dregs of the populace from enlisting in the British army。 It helped to fix the deep gulf between officers and men。 Forty years later Napoleon Bonaparte； despot though he might be； was struck by this separation。 He himself went freely among his men； warmed himself at their fire； and talked to them familiarly about their work； and he thought that the British officer was too aloof in his demeanor。 In the British army serving in America there were many officers of aristocratic birth and long training in military science。 When they found that American officers were frequently drawn from a class of society which in England would never aspire to a commission； and were largely self…taught； not unnaturally they jeered at an army so constituted。 Another fact excited British disdain。 The Americans were technically rebels against their lawful ruler； and rebels in arms have no rights as belligerents。 When the war ended more than a thousand American prisoners were still held in England on the capital charge of treason。 Nothing stirred Washington's anger more deeply than the remark sometimes made by British officers that the prisoners they took were receiving undeserved mercy when they were not hanged。
There was much debate at Valley Forge as to the prospect for the future。 When we look at available numbers during the war we appreciate the view of a British officer that in spite of Washington's failures and of British victories the war was serious； 〃an ugly job； a damned affair indeed。〃 The population of the coloniessome 2；500；000was about one…third that of the United Kingdom； and for the British the war was remote from the base of supply。 In those days； considering the means of transport； America was as far from England as at the present day is Australia。 Sometimes the voyage across the sea occupied two and even three months； and； with the relatively small ships of the time； it required a vast array of transports to carry an army of twenty or thirty thousand men。 In the spring of 1776 Great Britain had found it impossible to raise at home an army of even twenty thousand men for service in America； and she was forced to rely in large part upon mercenary soldiers。 This was nothing new。 Her island people did not like service abroad and this unwillingness was intensified in regard to war in remote America。 Moreover Whig leaders in England discouraged enlistment。 They were bitterly hostile to the war which they regarded as an attack not less on their own liberties than on those of America。 It would be too much to ascribe to the ignorant British common soldier of the time any deep conviction as to the merits or demerits of the cause for which he fought。 There is no evidence that； once in the army； he was less ready to attack the Americans than any other foe。 Certainly the Americans did not think he was half…hearted。
The British soldier fought indeed with more resolute determination than did the hired auxiliary at his side。 These German troops played a notable part in the war。 The despotic princes of the lesser German states were accustomed to sell the services of their troops。 Despotic Russia； too； was a likely field for such enterprise。 When； however； it was proposed to the Empress Catherine II that she should furnish twenty thousand men for service in America she retorted with the sage advice that it was England's true interest to settle the quarrel in America without war。 Germany was left as the recruiting field。 British efforts to enlist Germans as volunteers in her own army were promptly checked by the German rulers and it was necessary literally to buy the troops from their princes。 One…fourth of the able…bodied men of Hesse…Cassel were shipped to America。 They received four times the rate of pay at home and their ruler received in addition some half million dollars a year。 The men suffered terribly and some died of sickness for the homes to which thousands of them never returned。 German generals； such as Knyphausen and Riedesel； gave the British sincere and effective service。 The Hessians were； however； of doubtful benefit to the British。 It angered the Americans that hired troops should be used against them； an anger not lessened by the contempt which the Hessians showed for the colonial officers as plebeians。
The two sides were much alike in their qualities and were skillful in propaganda。 In Britain lurid tales were told of the colonists scalping the wounded at Lexington and using poisoned bullets at Bunker Hill。 In America every prisoner in British hands was said to be treated brutally and every man slain in the fighting to have been murdered。 The use of foreign troops was a fruitful theme。 The report ran through the colonies that the Hessians were huge ogre…like monsters； with double rows of teeth round each jaw； who had come at the call of the British tyrant to slay women and children。 In truth many of the Hessians became good Americans。 In spite of the loyalty of their officers they were readily induced to desert。 The wit of Benjamin Franklin was enlisted to compose telling appeals； translated into simple German； which promised grants of land to those who should abandon an unrighteous cause。 The Hessian trooper who opened a packet of tobacco might find in the wrapper appeals both to his virtue and to his cupidity。 It was easy for him to resist them when the British were winning victories and he was dreaming of a return to the Fatherland with a comfortable accumulation of pay； but it was different when reverses overtook British arms。 Then many hundreds slipped away； and today their blood flows in the veins of thousands of prosperous American farmers。
CHAPTER VIII。 THE ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE AND ITS RESULTS
Washington badly needed aid from Europe； but there every important government was monarchical and it was not easy for a young republic； the child of revolution； to secure an ally。 France tingled with joy at American victories and sorrowed at American reverses； but motives were mingled and perhaps hatred of England was stronger than love for liberty in America。 The young La Fayette had a pure zeal； but he would not have fought for the liberty of colonists in Mexico as he did for those in Virginia； and the difference was that service in Mexico would not hurt the enemy of France so recently triumphant。 He hated England and said so quite openly。 The thought of humiliating and destroying that 〃insolent nation〃 was always to him an inspiration。 Vergennes； the French Foreign Minister； though he lacked genius； was a man of boundless zeal and energy。 He was at work at four o'clock in the morning and he spent his long days in toil for his country。 He believed that England was the tyrant of the seas； 〃the monster against whom we should be always prepared；〃 a greedy； perfidious neighbor； the natural enemy of France。
From the first days of the trouble in regard to the Stamp Act Vergennes had rejoiced that England's own children were turning against her。 He had French military officers in England spying on her defenses。 When war broke out he showed no nice regard for the rules of neutrality and helped the colonies in every way possible。 It was a French writer who led in these activities。 Beaumarchais is known to the world chiefly as the creator of the character of Figaro； which has become the type of the bold； clever； witty； and intriguing rascal； but he played a real part in the American Revolution。 We need not inquire too closely into his motives。 There was hatred of the English； that 〃audacious； unbridled； shameless people；〃 and there was； too； the zeal for liberal ideas which made Queen Marie Antoinette herself take a pretty interest in the 〃dear republicans〃 overseas who were at the same time fighting the national enemy。 Beaumarchais secured from the government money with which he purchased supplies to be sent to America。 He had a great warehouse in Paris； and； under the rather fantastic Spanish name of Roderigue Hortalez & Co。； he sent vast quantities of munitions and clothing to America。 Cannon； not from private firms but from the government arsenals； were sent across the sea。 When Vergennes showed scruples about this violation of neutrality； the answer of Beaumarchais was that governments were not bound by rules of morality applicable to private persons。 Vergennes learned well the lesson and； while protesting to the British ambassador in Paris that France was blameless； he permitted outrageous breaches of the laws of neutrality。
Secret help was one thing； open alliance another。 Early in 1776 Silas Deane； a member from Connecticut of the Continental Congress； was named as envoy to France to secure French aid。 The day was to come when Deane should believe the struggle against Britain hopeless and counsel submission； but now he showed a furious zeal。 He knew hardly a word of French； but this did not keep him from making his elaborate programme well understood。 Himself a trader； he promised France vast profits from the monopoly of the trade of America when independence should be secure。 He gave other promises not more easy of fulfillment。 To Frenchmen zealous for the ideals of liberty and seeking military c