established。 Muller took for granted； without making any investigations； that young birds only learn by experience to distinguish between different kinds of victims。 But Lloyd Morgan's （〃Habit and Instinct〃； London； 1896。） experiments with young birds proved that this is really the case； and at the same time furnished an additional argument against the LAMARCKIAN PRINCIPLE。
In addition to the mimicry…rings first observed in South America； others have been described from Tropical India by Moore； and by Poulton and Dixey from Africa； and we may expect to learn many more interesting facts in this connection。 Here again the preliminary postulates of the theory are satisfied。 And how much more that would lead to the same conclusion might be added！
As in the case of mimicry many species have come to resemble one another through processes of selection； so we know whole classes of phenomena in which plants and animals have become adapted to one another； and have thus been modified to a considerable degree。 I refer particularly to the relation between flowers and insects； but as there is an article on 〃The Biology of Flowers〃 in this volume； I need not discuss the subject； but will confine myself to pointing out the significance of these remarkable cases for the theory of selection。 Darwin has shown that the originally inconspicuous blossoms of the phanerogams were transformed into flowers through the visits of insects； and that； conversely； several large orders of insects have been gradually modified by their association with flowers； especially as regards the parts of their body actively concerned。 Bees and butterflies in particular have become what they are through their relation to flowers。 In this case again all that is apparently contradictory to the theory can； on closer investigation； be beautifully interpreted in corroboration of it。 Selection can give rise only to what is of use to the organism actually concerned； never to what is of use to some other organism； and we must therefore expect to find that in flowers only characters of use to THEMSELVES have arisen； never characters which are of use to insects only； and conversely that in the insects characters useful to them and not merely to the plants would have originated。 For a long time it seemed as if an exception to this rule existed in the case of the fertilisation of the yucca blossoms by a little moth； Pronuba yuccasella。 This little moth has a sickle…shaped appendage to its mouth…parts which occurs in no other Lepidopteron； and which is used for pushing the yellow pollen into the opening of the pistil； thus fertilising the flower。 Thus it appears as if a new structure； which is useful only to the plant； has arisen in the insect。 But the difficulty is solved as soon as we learn that the moth lays its eggs in the fruit…buds of the Yucca； and that the larvae； when they emerge； feed on the developing seeds。 In effecting the fertilisation of the flower the moth is at the same time making provision for its own offspring； since it is only after fertilisation that the seeds begin to develop。 There is thus nothing to prevent our referring this structural adaptation in Pronuba yuccasella to processes of selection； which have gradually transformed the maxillary palps of the female into the sickle…shaped instrument for collecting the pollen； and which have at the same time developed in the insect the instinct to press the pollen into the pistil。
In this domain； then； the theory of selection finds nothing but corroboration； and it would be impossible to substitute for it any other explanation； which； now that the facts are so well known； could be regarded as a serious rival to it。 That selection is a factor； and a very powerful factor in the evolution of organisms； can no longer be doubted。 Even although we cannot bring forward formal proofs of it IN DETAIL； cannot calculate definitely the size of the variations which present themselves； and their selection…value； cannot； in short； reduce the whole process to a mathematical formula； yet we must assume selection； because it is the only possible explanation applicable to whole classes of phenomena； and because； on the other hand； it is made up of factors which we know can be proved actually to exist； and which； IF they exist； must of logical necessity cooperate in the manner required by the theory。 WE MUST ACCEPT IT BECAUSE THE PHENOMENA OF EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATION MUST HAVE A NATURAL BASIS； AND BECAUSE IT IS THE ONLY POSSIBLE EXPLANATION OF THEM。 （This has been discussed in many of my earlier works。 See for instance 〃The All… Sufficiency of Natural Selection； a reply to Herbert Spencer〃； London； 1893。）
Many people are willing to admit that selection explains adaptations； but they maintain that only a part of the phenomena are thus explained； because everything does not depend upon adaptation。 They regard adaptation as； so to speak； a special effort on the part of Nature； which she keeps in readiness to meet particularly difficult claims of the external world on organisms。 But if we look at the matter more carefully we shall find that adaptations are by no means exceptional； but that they are present everywhere in such enormous numbers； that it would be difficult in regard to any structure whatever； to prove that adaptation had NOT played a part in its evolution。
How often has the senseless objection been urged against selection that it can create nothing； it can only reject。 It is true that it cannot create either the living substance or the variations of it； both must be given。 But in rejecting one thing it preserves another； intensifies it； combines it； and in this way CREATES what is new。 EVERYTHING in organisms depends on adaptation； that is to say； everything must be admitted through the narrow door of selection； otherwise it can take no part in the building up of the whole。 But； it is asked； what of the direct effect of external conditions； temperature； nutrition； climate and the like？ Undoubtedly these can give rise to variations； but they too must pass through the door of selection； and if they cannot do this they are rejected； eliminated from the constitution of the species。
It may； perhaps； be objected that such external influences are often of a compelling power； and that every animal MUST submit to them； and that thus selection has no choice and can neither select nor reject。 There may be such cases； let us assume for instance that the effect of the cold of the Arctic regions was to make all the mammals become black； the result would be that they would all be eliminated by selection； and that no mammals would be able to live there at all。 But in most cases a certain percentage of animals resists these strong influences； and thus selection secures a foothold on which to work； eliminating the unfavourable variation； and establishing a useful colouring； consistent with what is required for the maintenance of the species。
Everything depends upon adaptation！ We have spoken much of adaptation in colouring； in connection with the examples brought into prominence by Darwin； because these are conspicuous； easily verified； and at the same time convincing for the theory of selection。 But is it only desert and polar animals whose colouring is determined through adaptation？ Or the leaf…butterflies； and the mimetic species； or the terrifying markings； and 〃warning…colours〃 and a thousand other kinds of sympathetic colouring？ It is； indeed； never the colouring alone which makes up the adaptation； the structure of the animal plays a part； often a very essential part； in the protective disguise； and thus MANY variations may cooperate towards ONE common end。 And it is to be noted that it is by no means only external parts that are changed； internal parts are ALWAYS modified at the same timefor instance； the delicate elements of the nervous system on which depend the INSTINCT of the insect to hold its wings； when at rest； in a perfectly definite position； which； in the leaf…butterfly； has the effect of bringing the two pieces on which the marking occurs on the anterior and posterior wing into the same direction； and thus displaying as a whole the fine curve of the midrib on the seeming leaf。 But the wing…holding instinct is not regulated in the same way in all leaf…butterflies； even our indigenous species of Vanessa； with their protective ground…colouring； have quite a distinctive way of holding their wings so that the greater part of the anterior wing is covered by the posterior when the butterfly is at rest。 But the protective colouring appears on the posterior wing and on the tip of the anterior； TO PRECISELY THE DISTANCE TO WHICH IT IS LEFT UNCOVERED。 This occurs； as Standfuss has shown； in different degree in our two most nearly allied species； the uncovered portion being smaller in V。 urticae than in V。 polychloros。 In this case； as in most leaf…butterflies； the holding of the wing was probably the primary character； only after that was thoroughly established did the protective marking develop。 In any case； the instinctive manner of holding the wings is associated with the protective colouring； and must remain as it is if the latter is to be effective。 How greatly instincts may change