quisition of speech public opinion arises； and finally； moral sense becomes habit。 The rest of Darwin's detailed discussions on moral philosophy may be passed over。
The fifth chapter may be very briefly summarised。 In it Darwin shows that the intellectual and moral faculties are perfected through natural selection。 He inquires how it can come about that a tribe at a low level of evolution attains to a higher； although the best and bravest among them often pay for their fidelity and courage with their lives without leaving any descendants。 In this case it is the sentiment of glory； praise and blame； the admiration of others； which bring about the increase of the better members of the tribe。 Property； fixed dwellings； and the association of families into a community are also indispensable requirements for civilisation。 In the longer second section of the fifth chapter Darwin acts mainly as recorder。 On the basis of numerous investigations； especially those of Greg； Wallace； and Galton； he inquires how far the influence of natural selection can be demonstrated in regard to civilised nations。 In the final section； which deals with the proofs that all civilised nations were once barbarians； Darwin again uses the results gained by other investigators； such as Lubbock and Tylor。 There are two sets of facts which prove the proposition in question。 In the first place； we find traces of a former lower state in the customs and beliefs of all civilised nations； and in the second place； there are proofs to show that savage races are independently able to raise themselves a few steps in the scale of civilisation； and that they have thus raised themselves。
In the sixth chapter of the work； Morphology comes into the foreground once more。 Darwin first goes back； however； to the argument based on the great difference between the mental powers of the highest animals and those of man。 That this is only quantitative； not qualitative； he has already shown。 Very instructive in this connection is the reference to the enormous difference in mental powers in another class。 No one would draw from the fact that the cochineal insect （Coccus） and the ant exhibit enormous differences in their mental powers； the conclusion that the ant should therefore be regarded as something quite distinct； and withdrawn from the class of insects altogether。
Darwin next attempts to establish the SPECIFIC genealogical tree of man； and carefully weighs the differences and resemblances between the different families of the Primates。 The erect position of man is an adaptive character； just as are the various characters referable to aquatic life in the seals； which； notwithstanding these； are ranked as a mere family of the Carnivores。 The following utterance is very characteristic of Darwin （〃Descent of Man〃； page 231。）： 〃If man had not been his own classifier； he would never have thought of founding a separate order for his own reception。〃 In numerous characters not mentioned in systematic works； in the features of the face； in the form of the nose； in the structure of the external ear； man resembles the apes。 The arrangement of the hair in man has also much in common with the apes； as also the occurrence of hair on the forehead of the human embryo； the beard； the convergence of the hair of the upper and under arm towards the elbow； which occurs not only in the anthropoid apes； but also in some American monkeys。 Darwin here adopts Wallace's explanation of the origin of the ascending direction of the hair in the forearm of the orang；that it has arisen through the habit of holding the hands over the head in rain。 But this explanation cannot be maintained when we consider that this disposition of the hair is widely distributed among the most different mammals； being found in the dog； in the sloth； and in many of the lower monkeys。
After further careful analysis of the anatomical characters Darwin reaches the conclusion that the New World monkeys （Platyrrhine） may be excluded from the genealogical tree altogether； but that man is an offshoot from the Old World monkeys （Catarrhine） whose progenitors existed as far back as the Miocene period。 Among these Old World monkeys the forms to which man shows the greatest resemblance are the anthropoid apes； which； like him； possess neither tail nor ischial callosities。 The platyrrhine and catarrhine monkeys have their primitive ancestor among extinct forms of the Lemuridae。 Darwin also touches on the question of the original home of the human race and supposes that it may have been in Africa； because it is there that man's nearest relatives； the gorilla and the chimpanzee； are found。 But he regards speculation on this point as useless。 It is remarkable that； in this connection； Darwin regards the loss of the hair…covering in man as having some relation to a warm climate； while elsewhere he is inclined to make sexual selection responsible for it。 Darwin recognises the great gap between man and his nearest relatives； but similar gaps exist at other parts of the mammalian genealogical tree： the allied forms have become extinct。 After the extermination of the lower races of mankind； on the one hand； and of the anthropoid apes on the other； which will undoubtedly take place； the gulf will be greater than ever； since the baboons will then bound it on the one side； and the white races on the other。 Little weight need be attached to the lack of fossil remains to fill up this gap； since the discovery of these depends upon chance。 The last part of the chapter is devoted to a discussion of the earlier stages in the genealogy of man。 Here Darwin accepts in the main the genealogical tree； which had meantime been published by Haeckel； who traces the pedigree back through Monotremes； Reptiles； Amphibians； and Fishes； to Amphioxus。
Then follows an attempt to reconstruct； from the atavistic characters； a picture of our primitive ancestor who was undoubtedly an arboreal animal。 The occurrence of rudiments of parts in one sex which only come to full development in the other is next discussed。 This state of things Darwin regards as derived from an original hermaphroditism。 In regard to the mammary glands of the male he does not accept the theory that they are vestigial； but considers them rather as not fully developed。
The last chapter of Part I deals with the question whether the different races of man are to be regarded as different species； or as sub…species of a race of monophyletic origin。 The striking differences between the races are first emphasised； and the question of the fertility or infertility of hybrids is discussed。 That fertility is the more usual is shown by the excessive fertility of the hybrid population of Brazil。 This； and the great variability of the distinguishing characters of the different races； as well as the fact that all grades of transition stages are found between these； while considerable general agreement exists； tell in favour of the unity of the races and lead to the conclusion that they all had a common primitive ancestor。
Darwin therefore classifies all the different races as sub…species of ONE AND THE SAME SPECIES。 Then follows an interesting inquiry into the reasons for the extinction of human races。 He recognises as the ultimate reason the injurious effects of a change of the conditions of life； which may bring about an increase in infantile mortality； and a diminished fertility。 It is precisely the reproductive system； among animals also； which is most susceptible to changes in the environment。
The final section of this chapter deals with the formation of the races of mankind。 Darwin discusses the question how far the direct effect of different conditions of life； or the inherited effects of increased use or disuse may have brought about the characteristic differences between the different races。 Even in regard to the origin of the colour of the skin he rejects the transmitted effects of an original difference of climate as an explanation。 In so doing he is following his tendency to exclude Lamarckian explanations as far as possible。 But here he makes gratuitous difficulties from which； since natural selection fails； there is no escape except by bringing in the principle of sexual selection； to which； he regarded it as possible； skin…colouring； arrangement of hair； and form of features might be traced。 But with his characteristic conscientiousness he guards himself thus： 〃I do not intend to assert that sexual selection will account for all the differences between the races。〃 （〃Descent of Man〃； page 308。）
I may be permitted a remark as to Darwin's attitude towards Lamarck。 While； at an earlier stage； when he was engaged in the preliminary labours for his immortal work； 〃The Origin of Species〃； Darwin expresses himself very forcibly against the views of Lamarck； speaking of Lamarckian 〃nonsense；〃 （〃Life and Letters〃； Vol。 II。 page 23。）； and of Lamarck's 〃absurd； though clever work〃 （Loc。 cit。 page 39。） and expressly declaring； 〃I attribute very little to the direct action of climate； etc。〃 （Loc。 cit。 （1856）； page 82。） yet in later life he became more and more convinced of the influence of external conditions。 In 1876； that is； two years after the appearance