y ocean washed its shores。 It was girt round by a belt of granite rocks； or by wide tracts of sand。 The foliage of its woods was dark and gloomy； for they were composed of firs； larches； evergreen oaks； wild olive…trees； and laurels。 Beyond this outer belt lay the thick shades of the central forest； where the largest trees which are produced in the two hemispheres grow side by side。 The plane； the catalpa； the sugar… maple； and the Virginian poplar mingled their branches with those of the oak； the beech； and the lime。 In these； as in the forests of the Old World； destruction was perpetually going on。 The ruins of vegetation were heaped upon each other； but there was no laboring hand to remove them； and their decay was not rapid enough to make room for the continual work of reproduction。 Climbing plants； grasses； and other herbs forced their way through the mass of dying trees； they crept along their bending trunks； found nourishment in their dusty cavities； and a passage beneath the lifeless bark。 Thus decay gave its assistance to life； and their respective productions were mingled together。 The depths of these forests were gloomy and obscure； and a thousand rivulets； undirected in their course by human industry； preserved in them a constant moisture。 It was rare to meet with flowers； wild fruits； or birds beneath their shades。 The fall of a tree overthrown by age； the rushing torrent of a cataract； the lowing of the buffalo； and the howling of the wind were the only sounds which broke the silence of nature。
To the east of the great river； the woods almost disappeared； in their stead were seen prairies of immense extent。 Whether Nature in her infinite variety had denied the germs of trees to these fertile plains； or whether they had once been covered with forests； subsequently destroyed by the hand of man； is a question which neither tradition nor scientific research has been able to resolve。
These immense deserts were not； however； devoid of human inhabitants。 Some wandering tribes had been for ages scattered among the forest shades or the green pastures of the prairie。 From the mouth of the St。 Lawrence to the delta of the Mississippi； and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean； these savages possessed certain points of resemblance which bore witness of their common origin； but at the same time they differed from all other known races of men： *g they were neither white like the Europeans； nor yellow like most of the Asiatics； nor black like the negroes。 Their skin was reddish brown； their hair long and shining； their lips thin； and their cheekbones very prominent。 The languages spoken by the North American tribes are various as far as regarded their words； but they were subject to the same grammatical rules。 These rules differed in several points from such as had been observed to govern the origin of language。 The idiom of the Americans seemed to be the product of new combinations； and bespoke an effort of the understanding of which the Indians of our days would be incapable。 *h
＇Footnote g： With the progress of discovery some resemblance has been found to exist between the physical conformation； the language； and the habits of the Indians of North America； and those of the Tongous； Mantchous； Mongols； Tartars； and other wandering tribes of Asia。 The land occupied by these tribes is not very distant from Behring's Strait； which allows of the supposition； that at a remote period they gave inhabitants to the desert continent of America。 But this is a point which has not yet been clearly elucidated by science。 See Malte Brun； vol。 v。； the works of Humboldt； Fischer； 〃Conjecture sur l'Origine des Americains〃； Adair； 〃History of the American Indians。〃＇
＇Footnote h： See Appendix； C。＇
The social state of these tribes differed also in many respects from all that was seen in the Old World。 They seemed to have multiplied freely in the midst of their deserts without coming in contact with other races more civilized than their own。 Accordingly； they exhibited none of those indistinct； incoherent notions of right and wrong； none of that deep corruption of manners； which is usually joined with ignorance and rudeness among nations which； after advancing to civilization； have relapsed into a state of barbarism。 The Indian was indebted to no one but himself； his virtues； his vices； and his prejudices were his own work； he had grown up in the wild independence of his nature。
If； in polished countries； the lowest of the people are rude and uncivil； it is not merely because they are poor and ignorant； but that； being so； they are in daily contact with rich and enlightened men。 The sight of their own hard lot and of their weakness； which is daily contrasted with the happiness and power of some of their fellow…creatures； excites in their hearts at the same time the sentiments of anger and of fear： the consciousness of their inferiority and of their dependence irritates while it humiliates them。 This state of mind displays itself in their manners and language； they are at once insolent and servile。 The truth of this is easily proved by observation； the people are more rude in aristocratic countries than elsewhere； in opulent cities than in rural districts。 In those places where the rich and powerful are assembled together the weak and the indigent feel themselves oppressed by their inferior condition。 Unable to perceive a single chance of regaining their equality； they give up to despair； and allow themselves to fall below the dignity of human nature。
This unfortunate effect of the disparity of conditions is not observable in savage life： the Indians； although they are ignorant and poor； are equal and free。 At the period when Europeans first came among them the natives of North America were ignorant of the value of riches； and indifferent to the enjoyments which civilized man procures to himself by their means。 Nevertheless there was nothing coarse in their demeanor； they practised an habitual reserve and a kind of aristocratic politeness。 Mild and hospitable when at peace； though merciless in war beyond any known degree of human ferocity； the Indian would expose himself to die of hunger in order to succor the stranger who asked admittance by night at the door of his hut； yet he could tear in pieces with his hands the still quivering limbs of his prisoner。 The famous republics of antiquity never gave examples of more unshaken courage； more haughty spirits； or more intractable love of independence than were hidden in former times among the wild forests of the New World。 *i The Europeans produced no great impression when they landed upon the shores of North America； their presence engendered neither envy nor fear。 What influence could they possess over such men as we have described？ The Indian could live without wants； suffer without complaint； and pour out his death…song at the stake。 *j Like all the other members of the great human family； these savages believed in the existence of a better world； and adored under different names； God； the creator of the universe。 Their notions on the great intellectual truths were in general simple and philosophical。 *k
＇Footnote i： We learn from President Jefferson's 〃Notes upon Virginia；〃 p。 148； that among the Iroquois； when attacked by a superior force； aged men refused to fly or to survive the destruction of their country； and they braved death like the ancient Romans when their capital was sacked by the Gauls。 Further on； p。 150； he tells us that there is no example of an Indian who； having fallen into the hands of his enemies； begged for his life； on the contrary； the captive sought to obtain death at the hands of his conquerors by the use of insult and provocation。＇
＇Footnote j： See 〃Histoire de la Louisiane；〃 by Lepage Dupratz； Charlevoix； 〃Histoire de la Nouvelle France〃； 〃Lettres du Rev。 G。 Hecwelder；〃 〃Transactions of the American Philosophical Society；〃 v。 I； Jefferson's 〃Notes on Virginia；〃 pp。 135…190。 What is said by Jefferson is of especial weight； on account of the personal merit of the writer； of his peculiar position； and of the matter… of…fact age in which he lived。＇
＇Footnote k： See Appendix； D。＇
Although we have here traced the character of a primitive people； yet it cannot be doubted that another people； more civilized and more advanced in all respects； had preceded it in the same regions。
An obscure tradition which prevailed among the Indians to the north of the Atlantic informs us that these very tribes formerly dwelt on the west side of the Mississippi。 Along the banks of the Ohio； and throughout the central valley； there are frequently found； at this day； tumuli raised by the hands of men。 On exploring these heaps of earth to their centre； it is usual to meet with human bones； strange instruments； arms and utensils of all kinds； made of metal； or destined for purposes unknown to the present race。 The Indians of our time are unable to give any information relative to the history of this unknown people。 Neither did those who lived three hundred years ago； when America was first discovered； leave any accounts from which even an hypothesis could be formed。 Tradition … that perishable； yet ever renewed monument of the pristine world