eradicate it from their minds。 The same tenacity of opinion has been observed in England； where； for the last century； greater freedom of conscience and more invincible prejudices have existed than in all the other countries of Europe。 I attribute this consequence to a cause which may at first sight appear to have a very opposite tendency； namely； to the liberty of the press。 The nations amongst which this liberty exists are as apt to cling to their opinions from pride as from conviction。 They cherish them because they hold them to be just； and because they exercised their own free…will in choosing them； and they maintain them not only because they are true； but because they are their own。 Several other reasons conduce to the same end。
It was remarked by a man of genius that 〃ignorance lies at the two ends of knowledge。〃 Perhaps it would have been more correct to have said； that absolute convictions are to be met with at the two extremities； and that doubt lies in the middle； for the human intellect may be considered in three distinct states； which frequently succeed one another。 A man believes implicitly； because he adopts a proposition without inquiry。 He doubts as soon as he is assailed by the objections which his inquiries may have aroused。 But he frequently succeeds in satisfying these doubts； and then he begins to believe afresh： he no longer lays hold on a truth in its most shadowy and uncertain form； but he sees it clearly before him； and he advances onwards by the light it gives him。 *c
＇Footnote c： It may； however； be doubted whether this rational and self…guiding conviction arouses as much fervor or enthusiastic devotedness in men as their first dogmatical belief。＇
When the liberty of the press acts upon men who are in the first of these three states； it does not immediately disturb their habit of believing implicitly without investigation； but it constantly modifies the objects of their intuitive convictions。 The human mind continues to discern but one point upon the whole intellectual horizon； and that point is in continual motion。 Such are the symptoms of sudden revolutions； and of the misfortunes which are sure to befall those generations which abruptly adopt the unconditional freedom of the press。
The circle of novel ideas is； however； soon terminated； the touch of experience is upon them； and the doubt and mistrust which their uncertainty produces become universal。 We may rest assured that the majority of mankind will either believe they know not wherefore； or will not know what to believe。 Few are the beings who can ever hope to attain to that state of rational and independent conviction which true knowledge can beget in defiance of the attacks of doubt。
It has been remarked that in times of great religious fervor men sometimes change their religious opinions； whereas in times of general scepticism everyone clings to his own persuasion。 The same thing takes place in politics under the liberty of the press。 In countries where all the theories of social science have been contested in their turn； the citizens who have adopted one of them stick to it； not so much because they are assured of its excellence； as because they are not convinced of the superiority of any other。 In the present age men are not very ready to die in defence of their opinions； but they are rarely inclined to change them； and there are fewer martyrs as well as fewer apostates。
Another still more valid reason may yet be adduced： when no abstract opinions are looked upon as certain； men cling to the mere propensities and external interests of their position； which are naturally more tangible and more permanent than any opinions in the world。
It is not a question of easy solution whether aristocracy or democracy is most fit to govern a country。 But it is certain that democracy annoys one part of the community； and that aristocracy oppresses another part。 When the question is reduced to the simple expression of the struggle between poverty and wealth； the tendency of each side of the dispute becomes perfectly evident without further controversy。
Chapter XII： Political Associations In The United States
Chapter Summary
Daily use which the Anglo…Americans make of the right of association … Three kinds of political associations … In what manner the Americans apply the representative system to associations … Dangers resulting to the State … Great Convention of 1831 relative to the Tariff … Legislative character of this Convention … Why the unlimited exercise of the right of association is less dangerous in the United States than elsewhere … Why it may be looked upon as necessary … Utility of associations in a democratic people。
Political Associations In The United States
In no country in the world has the principle of association been more successfully used； or more unsparingly applied to a multitude of different objects； than in America。 Besides the permanent associations which are established by law under the names of townships； cities； and counties； a vast number of others are formed and maintained by the agency of private individuals。
The citizen of the United States is taught from his earliest infancy to rely upon his own exertions in order to resist the evils and the difficulties of life； he looks upon social authority with an eye of mistrust and anxiety； and he only claims its assistance when he is quite unable to shift without it。 This habit may even be traced in the schools of the rising generation； where the children in their games are wont to submit to rules which they have themselves established； and to punish misdemeanors which they have themselves defined。 The same spirit pervades every act of social life。 If a stoppage occurs in a thoroughfare； and the circulation of the public is hindered； the neighbors immediately constitute a deliberative body； and this extemporaneous assembly gives rise to an executive power which remedies the inconvenience before anybody has thought of recurring to an authority superior to that of the persons immediately concerned。 If the public pleasures are concerned； an association is formed to provide for the splendor and the regularity of the entertainment。 Societies are formed to resist enemies which are exclusively of a moral nature； and to diminish the vice of intemperance： in the United States associations are established to promote public order； commerce； industry； morality； and religion； for there is no end which the human will； seconded by the collective exertions of individuals； despairs of attaining。
I shall hereafter have occasion to show the effects of association upon the course of society； and I must confine myself for the present to the political world。 When once the right of association is recognized； the citizens may employ it in several different ways。
An association consists simply in the public assent which a number of individuals give to certain doctrines； and in the engagement which they contract to promote the spread of those doctrines by their exertions。 The right of association with these views is very analogous to the liberty of unlicensed writing； but societies thus formed possess more authority than the press。 When an opinion is represented by a society； it necessarily assumes a more exact and explicit form。 It numbers its partisans； and compromises their welfare in its cause： they； on the other hand； become acquainted with each other； and their zeal is increased by their number。 An association unites the efforts of minds which have a tendency to diverge in one single channel； and urges them vigorously towards one single end which it points out。
The second degree in the right of association is the power of meeting。 When an association is allowed to establish centres of action at certain important points in the country； its activity is increased and its influence extended。 Men have the opportunity of seeing each other； means of execution are more readily combined； and opinions are maintained with a degree of warmth and energy which written language cannot approach。
Lastly； in the exercise of the right of political association； there is a third degree： the partisans of an opinion may unite in electoral bodies； and choose delegates to represent them in a central assembly。 This is； properly speaking； the application of the representative system to a party。
Thus； in the first instance； a society is formed between individuals professing the same opinion； and the tie which keeps it together is of a purely intellectual nature； in the second case； small assemblies are formed which only represent a fraction of the party。 Lastly； in the third case； they constitute a separate nation in the midst of the nation； a government within the Government。 Their delegates； like the real delegates of the majority； represent the entire collective force of their party； and they enjoy a certain degree of that national dignity and great influence which belong to the chosen representatives of the people。 It is true that they have not the right of making the laws； but they have the power of attacking those which are in being； and of drawing up beforehand those which they may afterwards cause to be adopted。
If； in a people which is i