or in this particular aspect of Philosophy； there is a complete and entire change in the point of view
adopted； the whole interest is limited to the form in which the objective； or individual sensations；
pass into the form of conceptions。 In the case of Spinoza and Malebranche； we undoubtedly
likewise saw that it was made a matter of importance to recognize this relation of thought to what
is sensuously perceived； and thus to know it as falling into relation； as passing into the relative； the
main question hence was： How are the two related？ But the question was answered to the effect
that it is only this relation for itself that constitutes the point of interest； and this relation itself as
absolute substance is thus identity； the true； God； it is not the related parts。 The interest does not
lie in the related parts； the related parts as one…sided are not the existent； presupposed and
permanently established； they are accidental merely。 But here the related sides； the things and the
subject； have their proper va1ue； and they are presupposed as having this value。 Locke's
reasoning is quite shallow； it keeps entirely to the phenomenal； to that which is； and not to that
which is true。
There is another question however： Are these general determinations absolutely true？ And whence
come they not alone into my consciousness； into my mind and understanding； but into the things
themselves？ Space； cause； effect； etc。； are categories。 How do these categories come into the
particular？ How does universal space arrive at determining itself？ This point of view； the question
whether these determinations of the infinite； of substance； etc。； are in and for themselves true； is
quite lost sight of。 Plato investigated the infinite and the finite； Being and the determinate； etc。； and
pronounced that neither of these opposites is of itself true； they are so only as together constituting
an identity； wherever the truth of this content may come from。 But here the truth as it is in and for
itself is entirely set aside and the nature of the content itself is made the main point。 It does not
matter whether the understanding or experience is its source； for the question is whether this
content is in itself true。 With Locke； the truth merely signifies the harmony of our conceptions with
things； here relation is alone in question； whether the content is an objective thing or a content of
the ordinary conception。 But it is quite another matter to investigate the content itself； and to ask；
“Is this which is within us true？ We must not dispute about the sources； for the Whence； the only
important point to Locke； does not exhaust the whole question。The interest of the content in and
for itself wholly disappears when that position is taken up； and thereby the whole of what is aimed
at by Philosophy is given up。 On the other hand； when thought is from the beginning concrete；
when thought and the universal are synonymous with what is set before us； the question of the
relation of the two which have been separated by thought is destitute of interest and
incomprehensible。 How does thought overcome the difficulties which itself has begotten？ Here
with Locke none at all have been begotten and awakened。 Before the need for reconciliation can
be satisfied； the pain of disunion must be excited。
The philosophy of Locke is certainly very comprehensible； but for that very reason it is likewise a
popular philosophy to which the whole of the English philosophy as it exists at this day is allied； it
is the thinking method of regarding things which is called philosophy carried to its perfection； the
form which was introduced into the science which then took its rise in Europe。 This is an important
moment in culture； the sciences in general and specially the empiric sciences have to ascribe their
origin to this movement。 To the English； Philosophy has ever signified the deduction of experiences
from observations； this has in a one…sided way been applied to physical and economic subjects。
General principles of political economy such as free…trade in the present day； and all matters which
rest on thinking experience； the knowledge of whatever reveals itself in this sphere as necessary
and useful； signifies philosophy to the English （Vol。 I。 pp。 57； 58）。 The scholastic method of
starting from principles and definitions has been rejected。 The universal； laws； forces； universal
matter； etc。； have in natural science been derived from perceptions； thus to the English； Newton is
held to be the philosopher par excellence。 The other side is that in practical philosophy regarding
society or the state； thought applies itself to concrete objects such as the will of the prince；
subjects and their ends and personal welfare。 Inasmuch as we have an object such as that before
us； the indwelling and essential universal is made evident； it must； however； be made clear which
conception is the one to which the others must yield。 It is in this way that rational politics took their
rise in England； because the institutions and government peculiar to the English led them specially
and in the first place to reflection upon their inward political and economic relationships。 Hobbes
must be mentioned as an exemplification of this fact。 This manner of reasoning starts from the
present mind； from what is our own； whether it be within or without us； since the feelings which we
have； the experiences which fall directly within us； are the principles。 This philosophy of reasoning
thought is that which has now become universal； and through which the whole revolution in the
position taken up by mind has come to pass。
1。 Buhle： Geschichte der neuern Philosophie； Vol。 IV。 Sec。 1； pp。 238…241； Quarterly Review；
April； 1817； pp。 70； 71； The Works of John Locke （London； 1812）； Vol。 I。： The Life of the
Author； pp。 xix…xxxix。
2。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （The Works of John Locke； Vol。 I。）； Book
I。 chap。 ii。 § 1； chap。 iii。 § 15； § 22。
3。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （Vol。 I。） Book I。 chap。。 ii。 § 2…9； § 27；
chap。 iii。 § 1…15。
4。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （Vol。 I。） Bk。 II。 chap。 i。 § 1； 2。
5。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （Vol。 I。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 i。 § 2…5。
6。 v。 Schiller's Xenien。
7。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （Vol。 I。）； Bk。 II。； chap。 ii。 § 2； not。； chap。
xii。 § 1； chap。 xxii。 § 2； chap。 i。 § 10…14。
8。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （Vol。 I。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 xiii。 § 2； chap。 iv。 §
2。
9。 Ibidem （Vol。 I。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 xiv。 § 3。
10。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （Vol。 II。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 xxiii。 § 1； 2。
11。 Ibidem （Vol。 I。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 xxi。 § 1。
12。 Ibidem （Vol。 II。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 xxvi。 § 1。
13。 Ibidem （Vol。 I。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 xxi。 § 7。
14。 Ibidem （Vol。 I。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 xiii。 § 17； 18。
15。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （Vol。 I。）； Bk。 II。 chap。 viii。 § 9…26。
16。 Locke： An Essay concerning human Understanding （Vol。 II。）； Bk。 III。 chap。 iii。 § 6； § 13；
15。
Section Two： Period of the Thinking Understanding
Chapter I。 — The Metaphysics of the Understanding
B 2。 HUGO GROTIUS。
Hugo Grotius was studying the laws of nations at the same time as Locke； and in him the very
same methods may be found as those already mentioned； inasmuch as he also falls into a quite
empirical system of associating nations with one another； combining with that an empirical mode of
reasoning。 Hugo van Groot； born 1583 at Delft； was a lawyer； fiscal general； and council
pensionary； in 1619； however； he was implicated in the Barneveldt trial； and was compelled to fly
the country。 For a long time he remained in France； but in 1634 he entered the service of Queen
Christina of Sweden。 In 1635 he was made Swedish ambassador in Paris； and in 1645 he died at
Rostock； while on a journey from Stockholm to Holland。（1） His principal work； De jure belli et
pacis； he composed in 1625； now it is not read； but at one time it exercised a very great and
important influence。 In it Grotius presented a comparative historical account； the material of which
was partly derived from the Old Testament； of the manner in which nations in the various
relationships of war and peace have acted towards one another； and what usages they held to be
binding。 The following may serve as an example of his empirical method of reasoning： Prisoners
ought not to be killed； for the object is to disarm the enemy； and if this end be attained nothing
further should be done。（2） This empirical way of connecting facts had the effect of bringing general
comprehensible and rational principles into consciousness； of making them recognized； and of
causing them to be more or less acceptable。 Thus we see principles set forth； respecting the
righteousness of a king's power for instance； for thought applied itself to everything。 We are
unsatisfied by such proofs and deductions； but we must not overlook what is thereby
accomplished； and this is the establishment of principles which have their ultimate confirmation in
the objects themselves； in mind and thought。
B