similarly for its object to bring man back to his so…called natural promptings； its essence has the
form of a natural impulse； and this natural impulse is termed self…love； selfishness； or benevolence。
It is required that man should live in conformity with nature； but this nature does not reach further
than general expressions and descriptions； such as the state of nature we find depicted by
Rousseau。 What is called the metaphysic of ordinary conceptions is the empiricism of Locke；
which seeks to show their origin； to be in consciousness； in as far as it is individual consciousness；
which； when born into the world； emerges out of unconsciousness in order to acquire knowledge
as sensuous consciousness。 This external origin they confound with the Becoming and Notion of
the matter in point。 If one were to ask vaguely what is the origin and genesis of water； and the
answer were to be given that it comes from the mountains or from rain； this would be a reply in the
spirit of the above philosophy。 In short； it is only the negative aspect that is interesting； and as for
this positive French philosophy； it is out of the question。 But even the negative side of it belongs
properly to culture mainly； with which we have here nothing to do； and the Aufkl？rung likewise
belongs to the same。 In the French philosophic writings； which in this respect are of importance；
what is worthy of admiration is the astonishing energy and force of the Notion as directed against
existence； against faith； against all the power of authority that had held sway for thousands of
years。 On the one hand we cannot help remarking the feeling of utter rebellion against the whole
state of affairs at present prevailing； a state which is alien to self…consciousness； which would fain
dispense with it； and in which self…consciousness does not find itself； there is a certainty of the truth
of reason； which challenges the whole intellectual world as it stands aloof； and is confident of
destroying it。 French atheism； materialism； or naturalism has overcome all prejudices； and has been
victorious over the senseless hypotheses and assumptions of the positive element in religion； which
is associated with habits； manners； opinions； determinations as to law and morality and civil
institutions。 With the healthy human understanding and earnestness of spirit； and not with frivolous
declamations； it has rebelled against the condition of the world as legally established； against the
constitution of the state； the administration of justice； the mode of government； political authority；
and likewise against art。
Contrasting with this barren content there is the other and fertile side。 The positive is in its turn
constituted by so…called immediately enlightening truths of the healthy human understanding； which
contains nothing except this truth and the claim to find itself； and beyond this form does not pass。
But in so doing there arises the endeavour to grasp the absolute as something present； and at the
same time as an object of thought and as absolute unity： an endeavour which； as it implies denial of
the conception of design both in the natural and in the spiritual sphere — the former involving the
idea of life； and the latter that of spirit and freedom — only reaches to the abstraction of a nature
undetermined in itself； to sensation； mechanism； self…seeking； and utility。 It is this then that we shall
have to make evident in the positive side of French philosophy。 In their political constitutions the
French have； it is true； started from abstractions； but they have done so as from universal thoughts；
which are the negative of reality； the English； on the other hand； proceed from concrete reality；
from the unwieldy structure of their constitution； just as their writers even have not attained to
universal principles。 What Luther began in the heart only and in the feelings — the freedom of spirit
which； unconscious of its simple root； does not comprehend itself； and yet is the very universal
itself； for which all content disappears in the thought； that fills itself with itself — these universal
determinations and thoughts the French asserted and steadfastly adhered to： they are universal
principles； in the form of the conviction of the individual in himself。 Freedom becomes the
condition of the world； connects itself with the world's history and forms epochs in the same； it is
the concrete freedom of the spirit； a concrete universality； fundamental principles as regards the
concrete now take the place of the abstract metaphysic of Descartes。 Among the Germans we
find mere chatter； they would have liked to offer explanations also； but all they have to give is in
the form of miserable phenomena and individualism。 The French； from their starting…point of the
thought of universality； and the German liberty of conscience starting from the conscience which
teaches us to “Prove all things；” to “hold fast that which is good；” have； however； joined hands
with one another； or they follow the same path。 Only the French； as though they were without
conscience； have made short work of everything； and have systematically adhered to a definite
thought — the physiocratic system； while the Germans wish to leave themselves a free retreat； and
examine from the standpoint of conscience whether a certain course is permissible。 The French
warred against the speculative Notion with the spirit； the Germans did so with the understanding。
We find in the French a deep all…embracing philosophic need； different from anything in the English
and Scotch and even in the Germans； and full of vitality： it is a universal concrete view of all that
exists； with entire independence both of all authority and of all abstract metaphysics。 The method
employed is that of development from perception； from the heart； it is a comprehensive view of the
entire matter； which keeps the whole ever in sight； and seeks to uphold and attain to it。
This healthy human understanding； this sound reason； with its content taken from the human breast；
from natural feeling； has directed itself against the religious side of things in various moments： on
the one hand and first of all； as French philosophy； it did so against the Catholic religion； the fetters
of superstition and of the hierarchy； on the other hand； in less pronounced form； as the German
“illumination；” against the Protestant religion； in as far as it has a content which it has derived
from revelation； from ecclesiastical authority in general。 On the one hand the form of authority in
general was challenged； and on the other hand its matter。 The content can be easily enough
disposed of by this form of thought； which is not what we understand by reason； but which must
be termed understanding； it is easy for the understanding to show objections to the ultimate
principles of what can be comprehended only by means of speculation。 The understanding has
thus tried the content of religion by its standard； and has condemned it； the understanding
proceeds in the same way against a concrete philosophy。 What of religion has in many theologies
been very commonly left remaining is what is termed theism； faith in general； this is the same
content which is found also in Mohammedanism。 But along with this attack upon religion on the
part of the reasoning understanding there has been also a movement towards materialism； atheism
and naturalism。 It is true that we should not make the charge of atheism lightly； for it is a very
common occurrence that an individual whose ideas about God differ from those of other people is
charged with lack of religion； or even with atheism。 But here it really is the case that this
philosophy has developed into atheism； and has defined matter； nature； &c。； as that which is to be
taken as the ultimate； the active； and the efficient。 Some Frenchmen； Rousseau for instance； are
not； however； to be included with the rest； one of this author's works； “The Confession of Faith of
a Vicar；” （1） contains the very same theism which is found in German theologians。 Thus French
metaphysics finds a parallel not only in Spinoza （supra； p。 382） but also in the German
metaphysics of Wolff。 Other Frenchmen have confessedly gone over to naturalism； among them is
specially to be mentioned Mirabaud； to whom the Système de la Nature is attributed。
In what has been termed French philosophy； represented by Voltaire； Montesquieu； Rousseau；
d'Alembert； Diderot； and in what subsequently appeared in Germany as the Aufkl？rung； and has
been also stigmatized as atheism； we may now distinguish three aspects； first； the negative side； to
which most exception has been taken； secondly； the positive side； thirdly； the philosophical；
metaphysical side。
1。 THE NEGATIVE ASPECT。
Justice must be done even to this negative side； as to everything else； what is substantial in it is the
attack of the reasoning instinct against a condition of degeneracy； I may even say of utter and
universal falsehood； for instance； against the positive side of a religion that has become wooden
and lifeless。 What we call religion is firm faith； conviction that there is a God； if this is faith in the
doctrines of