¡¶philosophy of right¡·

ÏÂÔر¾Êé

Ìí¼ÓÊéÇ©

philosophy of right- µÚ28²¿·Ö


°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡

The¡¡subjective¡¡right¡¡of¡¡self¡­consciousness¡¡to¡¡know¡¡whether¡¡an¡¡action¡¡is¡¡truly¡¡good¡¡or¡¡evil¡¡in
character¡¡must¡¡not¡¡be¡¡thought¡¡of¡¡as¡¡so¡¡colliding¡¡with¡¡the¡¡absolute¡¡right¡¡of¡¡the¡¡objectivity¡¡of¡¡this
character¡¡that¡¡the¡¡two¡¡rights¡¡are¡¡represented¡¡as¡¡separable£»¡¡indifferent¡¡to¡¡one¡¡another£»¡¡and¡¡related
only¡¡accidentally¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡such¡¡a¡¡conception¡¡of¡¡their¡¡relation¡¡that¡¡lay¡¡in¡¡particular¡¡at¡¡the¡¡root¡¡of¡¡the
old¡¡questions¡¡about¡¡efficacious¡¡grace¡£¡¡On¡¡its¡¡formal¡¡side£»¡¡evil¡¡is¡¡most¡¡peculiarly¡¡the¡¡individual's
own£»¡¡since¡¡£¨a£©¡¡it¡¡is¡¡precisely¡¡his¡¡subjectivity¡¡establishing¡¡itself¡¡purely¡¡and¡¡simply¡¡for¡¡itself£»¡¡and¡¡for
that¡¡reason¡¡it¡¡is¡¡purely¡¡and¡¡simply¡¡the¡¡individual's¡¡own¡¡responsibility¡¡£¨see¡¡¡ì¡¡139¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Remark
thereto£©£»¡¡£¨b£©¡¡on¡¡his¡¡objective¡¡side¡¡man¡¡accords¡¡with¡¡his¡¡concept¡¡inasmuch¡¡as¡¡he¡¡is¡¡mind£»¡¡in¡¡a¡¡word
a¡¡rational¡¡entity£»¡¡and¡¡has¡¡in¡¡his¡¡own¡¡nature¡¡as¡¡such¡¡the¡¡character¡¡of¡¡self¡­knowing¡¡universality¡£
Therefore¡¡it¡¡means¡¡failing¡¡to¡¡treat¡¡him¡¡with¡¡the¡¡respect¡¡due¡¡to¡¡his¡¡concept¡¡if¡¡his¡¡good¡¡side¡¡is
divorced¡¡from¡¡him£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡the¡¡character¡¡of¡¡his¡¡evil¡¡action¡¡as¡¡evil¡¡is¡¡divorced¡¡from¡¡him¡¡too¡¡and¡¡is
not¡¡imputed¡¡to¡¡him¡¡as¡¡evil¡£¡¡How¡¡determinate¡¡is¡¡the¡¡consciousness¡¡of¡¡these¡¡moments¡¡in¡¡distinction
from¡¡one¡¡another£»¡¡or¡¡to¡¡what¡¡extent¡¡it¡¡has¡¡developed¡¡or¡¡failed¡¡to¡¡develop¡¡in¡¡clarity¡¡so¡¡as¡¡to
become¡¡a¡¡recognition¡¡of¡¡them£»¡¡and¡¡to¡¡what¡¡degree¡¡an¡¡evil¡¡action¡¡has¡¡been¡¡done¡¡with¡¡a¡¡conscience
more¡¡or¡¡less¡¡downright¡¡evil¡¡¡­¡¡all¡¡these¡¡questions¡¡are¡¡the¡¡more¡¡trivial¡¡aspect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡matter£»¡¡the
aspect¡¡mainly¡¡concerned¡¡with¡¡the¡¡empirical¡£¡¡

£¨b£©¡¡Evil¡¡and¡¡doing¡¡evil¡¡with¡¡a¡¡bad¡¡conscience£»¡¡however£»¡¡is¡¡not¡¡quite¡¡hypocrisy¡£¡¡Into¡¡hypocrisy
there¡¡enters¡¡in¡¡addition¡¡the¡¡formal¡¡character¡¡of¡¡falsity£»¡¡first¡¡the¡¡falsity¡¡of¡¡holding¡¡up¡¡evil¡¡as¡¡good¡¡in
the¡¡eyes¡¡of¡¡others£»¡¡of¡¡setting¡¡oneself¡¡up¡¡to¡¡all¡¡appearance¡¡as¡¡good£»¡¡conscientious£»¡¡pious£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡on
¡­¡¡conduct¡¡which¡¡in¡¡these¡¡circumstances¡¡is¡¡only¡¡a¡¡trick¡¡to¡¡deceive¡¡others¡£¡¡Secondly£»¡¡however£»¡¡the
had¡¡man¡¡may¡¡find¡¡in¡¡his¡¡good¡¡conduct¡¡on¡¡other¡¡occasions£»¡¡or¡¡in¡¡his¡¡piety£»¡¡or£»¡¡in¡¡a¡¡word£»¡¡in¡¡good
reasons£»¡¡a¡¡justification¡¡in¡¡his¡¡own¡¡eyes¡¡for¡¡the¡¡evil¡¡he¡¡does£»¡¡because¡¡he¡¡can¡¡use¡¡these¡¡reasons¡¡to
pervert¡¡its¡¡apparent¡¡character¡¡from¡¡evil¡¡into¡¡good¡£¡¡His¡¡ability¡¡to¡¡do¡¡this¡¡depends¡¡on¡¡the¡¡subjectivity
which£»¡¡as¡¡abstract¡¡negativity£»¡¡knows¡¡that¡¡all¡¡determinations¡¡are¡¡subordinate¡¡to¡¡itself¡¡and¡¡issue¡¡from
its¡¡own¡¡will¡£¡¡

£¨c£©¡¡In¡¡this¡¡perversion¡¡of¡¡evil¡¡into¡¡good¡¡we¡¡may¡¡prima¡¡facie¡¡include¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡subjectivism¡¡known
as¡¡Probabilism¡£¡¡Its¡¡guiding¡¡principle¡¡is¡¡that¡¡an¡¡action¡¡is¡¡permissible£»¡¡and¡¡may¡¡be¡¡done¡¡with¡¡an¡¡easy
conscience£»¡¡provided¡¡that¡¡the¡¡agent¡¡can¡¡hunt¡¡out¡¡any¡¡single¡¡good¡¡reason¡¡for¡¡it£»¡¡be¡¡it¡¡only¡¡the
authority¡¡of¡¡a¡¡single¡¡theologian£»¡¡and¡¡even¡¡if¡¡other¡¡theologians¡¡are¡¡known¡¡by¡¡the¡¡agent¡¡to¡¡dissent
ever¡¡so¡¡widely¡¡from¡¡that¡¡authority¡£¡¡Even¡¡in¡¡this¡¡idea¡¡there¡¡is¡¡still¡¡present¡¡the¡¡correct¡¡apprehension
that¡¡authority¡¡and¡¡a¡¡reason¡¡based¡¡on¡¡authority¡¡gives¡¡probability¡¡only£»¡¡although¡¡this¡¡is¡¡supposed¡¡to
be¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡produce¡¡an¡¡easy¡¡conscience£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡granted¡¡in¡¡Probabilism¡¡that¡¡a¡¡good¡¡reason¡¡is
inevitably¡¡of¡¡such¡¡a¡¡character¡¡that¡¡there¡¡may¡¡exist¡¡along¡¡with¡¡it¡¡different¡¡reasons¡¡at¡¡least¡¡as¡¡good¡£
Even¡¡here¡¡we¡¡must¡¡recognise¡¡a¡¡vestige¡¡of¡¡objectivity¡¡in¡¡the¡¡admission¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡reason¡¡which
should¡¡be¡¡the¡¡determining¡¡factor¡£¡¡But¡¡since¡¡the¡¡discrimination¡¡between¡¡good¡¡and¡¡evil¡¡is¡¡made¡¡to
depend¡¡on¡¡all¡¡those¡¡good¡¡reasons£»¡¡including¡¡theological¡¡authorities¡¡too£»¡¡despite¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡they
are¡¡so¡¡numerous¡¡and¡¡contradictory£»¡¡the¡¡implication¡¡is¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡this¡¡objectivity¡¡of¡¡the¡¡thing£»¡¡but
subjectivity£»¡¡which¡¡has¡¡the¡¡last¡¡word¡£¡¡This¡¡means¡¡that¡¡caprice¡¡and¡¡self¡­will¡¡are¡¡made¡¡the¡¡arbiters¡¡of
good¡¡and¡¡evil£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡result¡¡is¡¡that¡¡ethics¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡religious¡¡feeling¡¡is¡¡undermined¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡fact
that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡private¡¡subjectivity¡¡to¡¡which¡¡the¡¡decision¡¡falls¡¡is¡¡one¡¡which¡¡Probabilism¡¡does¡¡not¡¡openly
avow¡¡as¡¡its¡¡principle£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡contrary£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡already¡¡been¡¡stated£»¡¡it¡¡gives¡¡out¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡some¡¡reason
or¡¡other¡¡which¡¡is¡¡decisive£»¡¡and¡¡Probabilism¡¡is¡¡to¡¡that¡¡extent¡¡still¡¡a¡¡form¡¡of¡¡hypocrisy¡£¡¡

£¨d£©¡¡In¡¡the¡¡stages¡¡of¡¡subjectivism£»¡¡the¡¡next¡¡in¡¡ascending¡¡order¡¡is¡¡the¡¡view¡¡that¡¡the¡¡goodness¡¡of¡¡the
will¡¡consists¡¡in¡¡its¡¡willing¡¡the¡¡good£»¡¡this¡¡willing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡abstract¡¡good¡¡is¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡suffice£»¡¡in¡¡fact
to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡sole¡¡requisite£»¡¡to¡¡make¡¡its¡¡action¡¡good¡£¡¡As¡¡the¡¡willing¡¡of¡¡something¡¡determinate£»¡¡action
has¡¡a¡¡content£»¡¡but¡¡good¡¡in¡¡the¡¡abstract¡¡determines¡¡nothing£»¡¡and¡¡hence¡¡it¡¡devolves¡¡on¡¡particular
subjectivity¡¡to¡¡give¡¡this¡¡content¡¡its¡¡character¡¡and¡¡constituents¡£¡¡just¡¡as¡¡in¡¡Probabilism¡¡anyone¡¡who¡¡is
not¡¡himself¡¡a¡¡learned¡¡R¨¦v¨¦rend¡¡P¨¨re¡¡may¡¡have¡¡the¡¡subsumption¡¡of¡¡a¡¡determinate¡¡content¡¡under
the¡¡universal¡¡predicate¡¡'good'¡¡effected¡¡for¡¡him¡¡by¡¡the¡¡sole¡¡authority¡¡of¡¡one¡¡such¡¡theologian£»¡¡so¡¡here
every¡¡subject£»¡¡without¡¡any¡¡further¡¡qualification£»¡¡is¡¡invested¡¡with¡¡this¡¡honour¡¡of¡¡giving¡¡a¡¡content¡¡to
good¡¡in¡¡the¡¡abstract£»¡¡or¡¡in¡¡other¡¡words¡¡subsuming¡¡a¡¡content¡¡under¡¡a¡¡universal¡£¡¡This¡¡content¡¡is¡¡only
one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡many¡¡elements¡¡in¡¡an¡¡action¡¡as¡¡a¡¡concrete¡¡whole£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡others¡¡may¡¡perhaps¡¡entail¡¡its
description¡¡as¡¡'criminal'¡¡and¡¡'bad'¡£¡¡That¡¡determinate¡¡content¡¡which¡¡1£»¡¡as¡¡subject£»¡¡give¡¡to¡¡the¡¡good£»
however£»¡¡is¡¡the¡¡good¡¡known¡¡to¡¡me¡¡in¡¡the¡¡action£»¡¡i¡£e¡£¡¡it¡¡is¡¡my¡¡good¡¡intention¡¡£¨see¡¡¡ì¡¡114£©¡£¡¡Thus
there¡¡arises¡¡a¡¡contradiction¡¡between¡¡descriptions£º¡¡according¡¡to¡¡one¡¡the¡¡action¡¡is¡¡good£»¡¡according
to¡¡the¡¡other¡¡it¡¡is¡¡criminal¡£¡¡Hence¡¡also¡¡there¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡arise£»¡¡in¡¡connection¡¡with¡¡a¡¡concrete¡¡action£»¡¡the
question¡¡whether¡¡in¡¡such¡¡circumstances¡¡the¡¡intention¡¡behind¡¡it¡¡is¡¡actually¡¡good¡£¡¡It¡¡may¡¡generally¡¡be
the¡¡case¡¡that¡¡the¡¡good¡¡is¡¡what¡¡is¡¡actually¡¡intended£»¡¡but¡¡this¡¡in¡¡fact¡¡must¡¡always¡¡be¡¡the¡¡case¡¡if¡¡it¡¡is
held¡¡that¡¡good¡¡in¡¡the¡¡abstract¡¡is¡¡the¡¡subject's¡¡determining¡¡motive¡£¡¡Where¡¡wrong¡¡is¡¡done¡¡through¡¡an
action¡¡which¡¡is¡¡well¡¡intentioned¡¡but¡¡in¡¡other¡¡respects¡¡criminal¡¡and¡¡bad£»¡¡the¡¡wrong¡¡so¡¡done¡¡must£»¡¡of
course£»¡¡also¡¡be¡¡good£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡important¡¡question¡¡would¡¡seem¡¡to¡¡be£º¡¡which¡¡of¡¡these¡¡sides¡¡of¡¡the
action¡¡is¡¡really¡¡the¡¡essential¡¡one£¿¡¡This¡¡objective¡¡question£»¡¡however£»¡¡is¡¡here¡¡out¡¡of¡¡place£»¡¡or¡¡rather¡¡it
is¡¡the¡¡subjective¡¡consciousness¡¡alone¡¡whose¡¡decision¡¡constitutes¡¡objectivity¡¡at¡¡this¡¡point¡£¡¡Besides£»
'essential'¡¡and¡¡'good'¡¡mean¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing£»¡¡one¡¡is¡¡just¡¡as¡¡much¡¡an¡¡abstraction¡¡as¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡Good¡¡is
that¡¡which¡¡is¡¡essential¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡will£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡essential¡¡in¡¡this¡¡respect¡¡should¡¡be¡¡precisely
this£»¡¡that¡¡my¡¡action¡¡be¡¡characterised¡¡as¡¡good¡¡in¡¡my¡¡eyes¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡subsumption¡¡under¡¡the¡¡good¡¡of
any¡¡content¡¡one¡¡pleases¡¡is¡¡the¡¡direct¡¡and¡¡explicit¡¡result¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡this¡¡abstract¡¡good¡¡is¡¡totally
devoid¡¡of¡¡content¡¡and¡¡so¡¡is¡¡simply¡¡reduced¡¡to¡¡meaning¡¡anything¡¡positive£»¡¡i¡£e¡£¡¡to¡¡something¡¡which¡¡is
valid¡¡from¡¡some¡¡single¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view¡¡and¡¡which¡¡in¡¡its¡¡immediate¡¡character¡¡may¡¡even¡¡be¡¡valid¡¡as¡¡an
essential¡¡end£»¡¡as¡¡for¡¡example¡¡to¡¡do¡¡good¡¡to¡¡the¡¡poor£»¡¡to¡¡take¡¡thought¡¡for¡¡myself£»¡¡my¡¡life£»¡¡my
family£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡forth¡£¡¡Further£»¡¡just¡¡as¡¡the¡¡good¡¡is¡¡the¡¡abstract£»¡¡so¡¡the¡¡bad¡¡too¡¡must¡¡be¡¡without
content¡¡and¡¡derive¡¡its¡¡specification¡¡from¡¡my¡¡subjectivity£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡in¡¡this¡¡way¡¡also¡¡that¡¡there¡¡arises
the¡¡moral¡¡end¡¡of¡¡hating¡¡and¡¡uprooting¡¡the¡¡bad£»¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bad¡¡being¡¡left¡¡unspecified¡£¡¡

Theft£»¡¡cowardice£»¡¡murder£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡forth£»¡¡as¡¡actions£»¡¡i¡£e¡£¡¡as¡¡achievements¡¡of¡¡a¡¡subjective¡¡will£»¡¡have
the¡¡immediate¡¡character¡¡of¡¡being¡¡satisfactions¡¡of¡¡such¡¡a¡¡will¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡of¡¡being¡¡something
positive¡£¡¡In¡¡order¡¡to¡¡make¡¡the¡¡action¡¡a¡¡good¡¡one£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡only¡¡a¡¡question¡¡of¡¡recognising¡¡this¡¡positive
aspect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡action¡¡as¡¡my¡¡intention£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡then¡¡becomes¡¡the¡¡essential¡¡aspect¡¡in¡¡virtue¡¡of¡¡which
the¡¡action¡¡is¡¡made¡¡good£»¡¡simply¡¡because¡¡I¡¡recognise¡¡it¡¡as¡¡the¡¡good¡¡in¡¡my¡¡intention¡£¡¡Theft¡¡in¡¡order
to¡¡do¡¡good¡¡to¡¡the¡¡poor£»¡¡theft¡¡or¡¡flight¡¡from¡¡battle¡¡for¡¡the¡¡sake¡¡of¡¡fulfilling¡¡one's¡¡duty¡¡to¡¡care¡¡for
one's¡¡life¡¡or¡¡one's¡¡family¡¡£¨a¡¡poor¡¡family¡¡perhaps¡¡into¡¡the¡¡bargain£©£»¡¡murder¡¡out¡¡of¡¡hate¡¡or¡¡revenge
£¨i¡£e¡£¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡satisfy¡¡one's¡¡sense¡¡of¡¡one's¡¡own¡¡rights¡¡or¡¡of¡¡right¡¡in¡¡general£»¡¡or¡¡one's¡¡sense¡¡of
another's¡¡wickedness£»¡¡of¡¡wrong¡¡done¡¡by¡¡him¡¡to¡¡oneself¡¡or¡¡to¡¡others¡¡or¡¡to¡¡the¡¡world¡¡or¡¡the¡¡nation
at¡¡large£»¡¡by¡¡extirpating¡¡this¡¡wicked¡¡individual¡¡who¡¡is¡¡wickedness¡¡incarnate£»¡¡and¡¡thereby
contributing¡¡at¡¡least¡¡one's¡¡quota¡¡to¡¡the¡¡project¡¡of¡¡uprooting¡¡the¡¡bad£©¡¡¡­¡¡all¡¡these¡¡actions¡¡are¡¡made
well¡¡intentioned¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡good¡¡by¡¡this¡¡method¡¡of¡¡taking¡¡account¡¡of¡¡the¡¡positive¡¡aspect¡¡of¡¡their
content¡£¡¡Only¡¡the¡¡bare¡¡minimum¡¡of¡¡intelligence¡¡is¡¡required¡¡to¡¡discover¡¡in¡¡any¡¡action£»¡¡as¡¡those
learned¡¡theologians¡¡can£»¡¡a¡¡positive¡¡side¡¡and¡¡so¡¡a¡¡good¡¡reason¡¡for¡¡it¡¡and¡¡a¡¡good¡¡intention¡¡behind¡¡it¡£
Hence¡¡it¡¡has¡¡been¡¡said¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡strict¡¡sense¡¡there¡¡are¡¡no¡¡wicked¡¡men£»¡¡since¡¡no¡¡one¡¡wills¡¡evil¡¡for
the¡¡sake¡¡of¡¡evil£»¡¡i¡£e¡£¡¡no¡¡one¡¡wills¡¡a¡¡pure¡¡negative¡¡as¡¡such¡£¡¡On¡¡the¡¡contrary£»¡¡everyone¡¡always¡¡wills
something¡¡positive£»¡¡and¡¡therefore£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡view¡¡we¡¡are¡¡considering£»¡¡something¡¡good¡£¡¡In¡¡this
abstract¡¡good¡¡the¡¡distinction¡¡between¡¡good¡¡and¡¡evil¡¡has¡¡vanished¡¡together¡¡with¡¡all¡¡concrete¡¡duties£»
for¡¡this¡¡reason£»¡¡simply¡¡to¡¡will¡¡the¡¡good¡¡and¡¡to¡¡have¡¡a¡¡good¡¡intention¡¡in¡¡acting¡¡is¡¡more¡¡like¡¡evil¡¡than
good£»¡¡because¡¡the¡¡good¡¡willed¡¡is¡¡only¡¡this¡¡abstract¡¡form¡¡of¡¡good¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡to¡¡make¡¡it¡¡concrete
devolves¡¡on¡¡the¡¡arbitrary¡¡Will¡¡of¡¡the¡¡subject¡£¡¡

To¡¡this¡¡context¡¡there¡¡also¡¡belongs¡¡the¡¡notorious¡¡maxim£º¡¡'The¡¡end¡¡justifies
СÌáʾ£º°´ »Ø³µ [Enter] ¼ü ·µ»ØÊéÄ¿£¬°´ ¡û ¼ü ·µ»ØÉÏÒ»Ò³£¬ °´ ¡ú ¼ü ½øÈëÏÂÒ»Ò³¡£ ÔÞһϠÌí¼ÓÊéÇ©¼ÓÈëÊé¼Ü