unequal by nature； where inequality is in its element； and in civil society the right of particularity is
so far from。 annulling this natural inequality that it produces it out of mind and raises it to an
inequality of skill and resources； and even to one of moral and intellectual attainment。 To oppose
to this right a demand for equality is a folly of the Understanding which takes as real and rational
its abstract equality and its ‘ought…to…be’。
This sphere of particularity； which fancies itself the universal； is still only relatively identical with the
universal； and consequently it still retains in itself the particularity of nature； i。e。 arbitrariness； or in
other words the relics of the state of nature。 Further； it is reason； immanent in the restless system
of human needs； which articulates it into an organic whole with different members （see the
following §）。
§ 201。
The infinitely complex； criss…cross； movements of reciprocal production and
exchange； and the equally infinite multiplicity of means therein employed； become
crystallised； owing to the universality inherent in their content； and distinguished
into general groups。 As a result； the entire complex is built up into particular
systems of needs； means； and types of work relative to these needs； modes of
satisfaction and of theoretical and practical education； i。e。 into systems； to one or
other of which individuals are assigned — in other words； into class…divisions。
Addition： The ways and means of sharing in the capital of society are left to each man’s
particular choice； but the subdivision of civil society into different general branches is a necessity。
The family is the first precondition of the state； but class divisions are the second。 The importance
of the latter is due to the fact that although private persons are self…seeking； they are compelled to
direct their attention to others。 Here then is the root which connects self…seeking to the universal；
i。e。 to the state； whose care it must be that this tie is a hard and fast one。
§ 202。
The classes are specifically determined in accordance with the concept as
（a） the substantial or immediate ＇or agricultural＇ class；
（b） the reflecting or formal ＇or business＇ class； and finally；
（c） the universal class ＇the class of civil servants＇。
§ 203。
（a） The substantial ＇or agricultural＇ class has its capital in the natural products of
the soil which it cultivates — soil which is capable of exclusively private
ownership and which demands formation in an objective way and not mere
haphazard exploitation。 In face of the connection of ＇agricultural＇ labour and its
fruits with separate and fixed times of the year； and the dependence of harvests
on the variability of natural processes； the aim of need in this class turns into
provision for the future； but owing to the conditions here； the agricultural mode of
subsistence remains one which owes comparatively little to reflection and
independence of will； and this mode of life is in general such that this class has
the substantial disposition of an ethical life which is immediate； resting on family
relationship and trust。
Remark： The real beginning and original foundation of states has been rightly ascribed to the
introduction of agriculture along with marriage； because the principle of agriculture brings with it
the formation of the land and consequentially exclusively private property （compare Remark to §
170）； the nomadic life of savages； who seek their livelihood from place to place； it brings back to
the tranquillity of private rights and the assured satisfaction of their needs。 Along with these
changes； sexual love is restricted to marriage； and this bond in turn grows into an enduring league；
inherently universal； while needs expand into care for a family； and personal possessions into
family goods。 Security； consolidation； lasting satisfaction of needs； and so forth — things which are
the most obvious recommendations of marriage and agriculture — are nothing but forms of
universality； modes in which rationality； the final end and aim； asserts itself in these spheres。
In this matter； nothing is of more interest than the ingenious and learned explanations which my
distinguished friend； Herr Creuzer； has given of the agrarian festivals； images； and sanctuaries of
the ancients。 He shows that it was because the ancients themselves had become conscious of the
divine origin of agriculture and other institutions associated with it that they held them in such
religious veneration。
In course of time； the character of this class as ‘substantial’ undergoes modifications through the
working of the civil law； in particular the administration of justice； as well as through the working of
education； instruction； and religion。 These modifications； which occur in the other classes also； do
not affect the substantial content of the class but only its form and the development of its power of
reflection。
Addition： In our day agriculture is conducted on methods devised by reflective thinking； i。e。 like
a factory。 This has given it a character like that of industry and contrary to its natural one。 Still； the
agricultural class will always retain a mode of life which is patriarchal and the substantial frame of
mind proper to such a life。 The member of this class accepts unreflectively what is given him and
takes what he gets； thanking God for it and living in faith and confidence that this goodness will
continue。 What comes to him suffices him； once it is consumed； more comes again。 This is the
simple attitude of mind not concentrated on the struggle for riches。 It may be described as the
attitude of the old nobility which just ate what there was。 So far as this class is concerned； nature
does the major part； while individual effort is secondary。 In the business class； however； it is
intelligence which is the essential thing； and natural products can be treated only as raw materials。
§ 204。
（b） The business class has for its task the adaptation of raw materials； and for its
means of livelihood it is thrown back on its work； on reflection and intelligence；
and essentially on the mediation of one man’s needs and labour with those of
others。 For what this class produces and enjoys； it has mainly itself； its own
industry； to thank。 The task of this class is subdivided into
＇a＇ work to satisfy single needs in a comparatively concrete way and to
supply single orders — craftsmanship；
＇b＇ work of a more abstract kind； mass…production to satisfy single needs；
but needs in more universal demand — manufacture；
＇c＇ the business of exchange； whereby separate utilities are exchanged the
one for the other； principally through the use of the universal medium of
exchange； money； which actualises the abstract value of all commodities —
trade。
Addition： In the business class； the individual is thrown back on himself； and this feeling of
self…hood is most intimately connected with the demand for law and order。 The sense of freedom
and order has therefore arisen above all in towns。 The agricultural class； on the other hand； has
little occasion to think of itself； what it obtains is the gift of a stranger； of nature。 Its feeling of
dependence is fundamental to it； and with this feeling there is readily associated a willingness to
submit to whatever may befall it at other men’s hands。 The agricultural class is thus more inclined
to subservience； the business class to freedom。
§ 205。
（c） The universal class ＇the class of civil servants＇ has for its task the universal
interests of the community。 It must therefore be relieved from direct labour to
supply its needs； either by having private means or by receiving an allowance
from the state which claims its industry； with the result that private interest finds
its satisfaction in its work for the universal。
§ 206。
It is in accordance with the concept that class…organisation； as particularity
become objective to itself； is split in this way into its general divisions。 But the
question of the particular class to which an individual is to belong is one on which
natural capacity； birth； and other circumstances have their influence； though the
essential and final determining factors are subjective opinion and the individual’s
arbitrary will； which win in this sphere their right； their merit； and their dignity。
Hence what happens here by inner necessity occurs at the same time by the
mediation of the arbitrary will； and to the conscious subject it has the shape of
being the work of his own will。
Remark： In this respect too there is a conspicuous difference； in relation to the principle of
particularity and the subject’s arbitrary will； between the political life of the east and the west； and
also between that of the ancient and the modern world。 In the former； the division of the whole
into classes came about objectively of itself； because it is inhe