conscience； nor any restraint on the conduct of men； except the
calculation of self…interest； the balancing of certain present
gratifications against doubtful future pains； and experience tells us
how much that is worth。 Every day； we see firm believers in the hell
of the theologians commit acts by which； as they believe when cool；
they risk eternal punishment； while they hold back from those which am
opposed to the sympathies of their associates。
XIII。
That progressive modification of civilization which passes by the name
of the 〃evolution of society；〃 is； in fact； a process of an
essentially different character； both from that which brings about the
evolution of species； in the state of nature； and from that which
gives rise to the evolution of varieties； in the state of art。
There can be no doubt that vast changes have taken place in English
civilization since the reign ＇38＇ of the Tudors。 But I am not aware of
a particle of evidence in favour of the conclusion that this
evolutionary process； has been accompanied by any modification of the
physical； or the mental； characters of the men who have been the
subjects of it。 I have not met with any grounds for suspecting that
the average Englishmen of to…day are sensibly different from those
that Shakspere knew and drew。 We look into his magic mirror of the
Elizabethan age； and behold； nowise darkly； the presentment of
ourselves。
During these three centuries； from the reign of Elizabeth to that of
Victoria； the struggle for existence between man and man has been so
largely restrained among the great mass of the population （except for
one or two short intervals of civil war）； that it can have had little；
or no； selective operation。 As to anything comparable to direct
selection； it has been practised on so small a scale that it may also
be neglected。 The criminal law； in so far as by putting to death or by
subjecting to long periods of imprisonment； those who infringe its
provisions； prevents the propagation of hereditary criminal
tendencies； and the poor…law； in so far as it separates married
couples； whose destitution arises from hereditary defects of
character； are doubtless selective agents operating in favour of the
non…criminal and the more effective members of society。 But the
proportion of the population which they influence ＇39＇ is very small；
and； generally； the hereditary criminal and the hereditary pauper have
propagated their kind before the law affects them。 In a large
proportion of cases； crime and pauperism have nothing to do with
heredity； but are the consequence； partly； of circumstances and；
partly； of the possession of qualities； which； under different
conditions of life； might have excited esteem and even admiration。 It
was a shrewd man of the world who； in discussing sewage problems；
remarked that dirt is riches in the wrong place； and that sound
aphorism has moral applications。 The benevolence and open…handed
generosity which adorn a rich man； may make a pauper of a poor one；
the energy and courage to which the successful soldier owes his rise；
the cool and daring subtlety to which the great financier owes his
fortune； may very easily； under unfavourable conditions； lead their
possessors to the gallows； or to the hulks。 Moreover； it is fairly
probable that the children of a 〃failure〃 will receive from their
other parent just that little modification of character which makes
all the difference。 I sometimes wonder whether people； who talk so
freely about extirpating the unfit； ever dispassionately consider
their own history。 Surely； one must be very 〃fit；〃 indeed； not to know
of an occasion； or perhaps two； in one's life； when it would have been
only too easy to qualify for a place among the 〃unfit。〃
＇40＇ In my belief the innate qualities； physical； intellectual； and
moral； of our nation have remained substantially the same for the last
four or five centuries。 If the struggle for existence has affected us
to any serious extent （and I doubt it） it has been； indirectly；
through our military and industrial wars with other nations。
XIV。
What is often called the struggle for existence in society （I plead
guilty to having used the term too loosely myself）； is a contest； not
for the means of existence； but for the means of enjoyment。 Those who
occupy the first places in this practical competitive examination are
the rich and the influential； those who fail； more or less； occupy the
lower places； down to the squalid obscurity of the pauper and the
criminal。 Upon the most liberal estimate； I suppose the former group
will not amount to two per cent。 of the population。 I doubt if the
latter exceeds another two per cent。； but let it be supposed； for the
sake of argument； that it is as great as five per cent。*
* Those who read the last Essay in this volume will not accuse
me of wishing to attenuate the evil of the existence of this
group； whether great or small。
As it is only in the latter group that any thing comparable to the
struggle for existence in the state of nature can take place； as it is
＇41＇ only among this twentieth of the whole people that numerous men；
women； and children die of rapid or slow starvation； or of the
diseases incidental to permanently bad conditions of life； and as
there is nothing to prevent their multiplication before they are
killed off； while； in spite of greater infant mortality； they increase
faster than the rich； it seems clear that the struggle for existence
in this class can have no appreciable selective influence upon the
other 95 per cent。 of the population。
What sort of a sheep breeder would he be who should content himself
with picking out the worst fifty out of a thousand； leaving them on a
barren common till the weakest starved； and then letting the survivors
go back to mix with the rest？ And the parallel is too favourable；
since in a large number of cases； the actual poor and the convicted
criminals are neither the weakest nor the worst。
In the struggle for the means of enjoyment； the qualities which ensure
success are energy； industry； intellectual capacity； tenacity of
purpose； and； at least； as much sympathy as is necessary to make a man
understand the feelings of his fellows。 Were there none of those
artificial arrangements by which fools and knaves are kept at the top
of society instead of sinking to their natural place at the bottom；*
the struggle for the means ＇42＇ of enjoyment would ensure a constant
circulation of the human units of the social compound； from the bottom
to the top and from the top to the bottom。 The survivors of the
contest； those who continued to form the great bulk of the polity；
would not be those 〃fittest〃 who got to the very top； but the great
body of the moderately 〃fit；〃 whose numbers and superior propagative
power； enable them always to swamp the exceptionally endowed minority。
* I have elsewhere lamented the absence from society of a
machinery for facilitating the descent of incapacity。
〃Administrative Nihilism。〃 Collected Essays； vol。 i。 p。 54。
I think it must be obvious to every one； that； whether we consider the
internal or the external interests of society； it is desirable they
should be in the hands of those who are endowed with the largest share
of energy； of industry； of intellectual capacity； of tenacity of
purpose； while they are not devoid of sympathetic humanity； and； in so
far as the struggle for the means of enjoyment tends to place such men
in possession of wealth and influence； it is a process which tends to
the good of society。 But the process； as we have seen； has no real
resemblance to that which adapts living beings to current conditions
in the state of nature； nor any to the artificial selection of the
horticulturist。
＇43＇ To return； once more； to the parallel of horticulture。 In the
modern world； the gardening of men by themselves is practically
restricted to the performance； not of selection； but of that other
function of the gardener； the creation of conditions more favourable
than those of the state of nature； to the end of facilitating the free
expansion of the innate faculties of the citizen； so far as it is
consistent with the general good。 And the business of the moral and
political philosopher appears to me to be the ascertainment； by the
same method of observation； experiment； and ratiocination； as is
practised in other kinds of scientific work； of the course of conduct
which will best conduce to that end。
But； supposing this course of conduct to be scientifically determined
and carefully followed out； it cannot put an end to the struggle for
existence in the state of nature； and it will not so much as tend； in
any way； to the adaptation of man to that state。 Even should the whole
human race be absorbed in one vast polity； within which 〃absolute
political justice〃 reigns； the struggle for existence with the state
of nature outside it； and the tendency to the return to the struggle
within； in consequence of over…multiplication； will remain； and；
unless men's inheritance from the ancestors who fought a good fight in
the state of ＇44＇ nature； their d