democracy in america-1- 第47部分

The　practical　consequences　of　these　different　systems　may　easily　be　perceived。　　An　attentive　observer　will　soon　remark　that　the　business　of　the　Union　is　incomparably　better　conducted　than　that　of　any　individual　State。　The　conduct　of　the　Federal　Government　is　more　fair　and　more　temperate　than　that　of　the　States；　its　designs　are　more　fraught　with　wisdom；　its　projects　are　more　durable　and　more　skilfully　combined；　its　measures　are　put　into　execution　with　more　vigor　and　consistency。

I　recapitulate　the　substance　of　this　chapter　in　a　few　words：　The　existence　of　democracies　is　threatened　by　two　dangers；　viz。；　the　complete　subjection　of　the　legislative　body　to　the　caprices　of　the　electoral　body；　and　the　concentration　of　all　the　powers　of　the　Government　in　the　legislative　authority。　　The　growth　of　these　evils　has　been　encouraged　by　the　policy　of　the　legislators　of　the　States；　but　it　has　been　resisted　by　the　legislators　of　the　Union　by　every　means　which　lay　within　their　control。

Characteristics　Which　Distinguish　The　Federal　Constitution　Of　The　United　States　Of　America　From　All　Other　Federal　Constitutions　　American　Union　appears　to　resemble　all　other　confederations　…　Nevertheless　its　effects　are　different　…　Reason　of　this　…　Distinctions　between　the　Union　and　all　other　confederations　…　The　American　Government　not　a　federal　but　an　imperfect　national　Government。

The　United　States　of　America　do　not　afford　either　the　first　or　the　only　instance　of　confederate　States；　several　of　which　have　existed　in　modern　Europe；　without　adverting　to　those　of　antiquity。　　Switzerland；　the　Germanic　Empire；　and　the　Republic　of　the　United　Provinces　either　have　been　or　still　are　confederations。　　In　studying　the　constitutions　of　these　different　countries；　the　politician　is　surprised　to　observe　that　the　powers　with　which　they　invested　the　Federal　Government　are　nearly　identical　with　the　privileges　awarded　by　the　American　Constitution　to　the　Government　of　the　United　States。　They　confer　upon　the　central　power　the　same　rights　of　making　peace　and　war；　of　raising　money　and　troops；　and　of　providing　for　the　general　exigencies　and　the　common　interests　of　the　nation。　　Nevertheless　the　Federal　Government　of　these　different　peoples　has　always　been　as　remarkable　for　its　weakness　and　inefficiency　as　that　of　the　Union　is　for　its　vigorous　and　enterprising　spirit。　Again；　the　first　American　Confederation　perished　through　the　excessive　weakness　of　its　Government；　and　this　weak　Government　was；　notwithstanding；　in　possession　of　rights　even　more　extensive　than　those　of　the　Federal　Government　of　the　present　day。　　But　the　more　recent　Constitution　of　the　United　States　contains　certain　principles　which　exercise　a　most　important　influence；　although　they　do　not　at　once　strike　the　observer。　

This　Constitution；　which　may　at　first　sight　be　confounded　with　the　federal　constitutions　which　preceded　it；　rests　upon　a　novel　theory；　which　may　be　considered　as　a　great　invention　in　modern　political　science。　　In　all　the　confederations　which　had　been　formed　before　the　American　Constitution　of　1789　the　allied　States　agreed　to　obey　the　injunctions　of　a　Federal　Government；　but　they　reserved　to　themselves　the　right　of　ordaining　and　enforcing　the　execution　of　the　laws　of　the　Union。　　The　American　States　which　combined　in　1789　agreed　that　the　Federal　Government　should　not　only　dictate　the　laws；　but　that　it　should　execute　it　own　enactments。　　In　both　cases　the　right　is　the　same；　but　the　exercise　of　the　right　is　different；　and　this　alteration　produced　the　most　momentous　consequences。　

In　all　the　confederations　which　had　been　formed　before　the　American　Union　the　Federal　Government　demanded　its　supplies　at　the　hands　of　the　separate　Governments；　and　if　the　measure　it　prescribed　was　onerous　to　any　one　of　those　bodies　means　were　found　to　evade　its　claims：　if　the　State　was　powerful；　it　had　recourse　to　arms；　if　it　was　weak；　it　connived　at　the　resistance　which　the　law　of　the　Union；　its　sovereign；　met　with；　and　resorted　to　inaction　under　the　plea　of　inability。　　Under　these　circumstances　one　of　the　two　alternatives　has　invariably　occurred；　either　the　most　preponderant　of　the　allied　peoples　has　assumed　the　privileges　of　the　Federal　authority　and　ruled　all　the　States　in　its　name；　*p　or　the　Federal　Government　has　been　abandoned　by　its　natural　supporters；　anarchy　has　arisen　between　the　confederates；　and　the　Union　has　lost　all　powers　of　action。　*q

＇Footnote　p：　This　was　the　case　in　Greece；　when　Philip　undertook　to　execute　the　decree　of　the　Amphictyons；　in　the　Low　Countries；　where　the　province　of　Holland　always　gave　the　law；　and；　in　our　own　time；　in　the　Germanic　Confederation；　in　which　Austria　and　Prussia　assume　a　great　degree　of　influence　over　the　whole　country；　in　the　name　of　the　Diet。＇

＇Footnote　q：　Such　has　always　been　the　situation　of　the　Swiss　Confederation；　which　would　have　perished　ages　ago　but　for　the　mutual　jealousies　of　its　neighbors。＇

In　America　the　subjects　of　the　Union　are　not　States；　but　private　citizens：　the　national　Government　levies　a　tax；　not　upon　the　State　of　Massachusetts；　but　upon　each　inhabitant　of　Massachusetts。　　All　former　confederate　governments　presided　over　communities；　but　that　of　the　Union　rules　individuals；　its　force　is　not　borrowed；　but　self…derived；　and　it　is　served　by　its　own　civil　and　military　officers；　by　its　own　army；　and　its　own　courts　of　justice。　　It　cannot　be　doubted　that　the　spirit　of　the　nation；　the　passions　of　the　multitude；　and　the　provincial　prejudices　of　each　State　tend　singularly　to　diminish　the　authority　of　a　Federal　authority　thus　constituted；　and　to　facilitate　the　means　of　resistance　to　its　mandates；　but　the　comparative　weakness　of　a　restricted　sovereignty　is　an　evil　inherent　in　the　Federal　system。　　In　America；　each　State　has　fewer　opportunities　of　resistance　and　fewer　temptations　to　non…compliance；　nor　can　such　a　design　be　put　in　execution　（if　indeed　it　be　entertained）　without　an　open　violation　of　the　laws　of　the　Union；　a　direct　interruption　of　the　ordinary　course　of　justice；　and　a　bold　declaration　of　revolt；　in　a　word；　without　taking　a　decisive　step　which　men　hesitate　to　adopt。　

In　all　former　confederations　the　privileges　of　the　Union　furnished　more　elements　of　discord　than　of　power；　since　they　multiplied　the　claims　of　the　nation　without　augmenting　the　means　of　enforcing　them：　and　in　accordance　with　this　fact　it　may　be　remarked　that　the　real　weakness　of　federal　governments　has　almost　always　been　in　the　exact　ratio　of　their　nominal　power。　　Such　is　not　the　case　in　the　American　Union；　in　which；　as　in　ordinary　governments；　the　Federal　Government　has　the　means　of　enforcing　all　it　is　empowered　to　demand。

The　human　understanding　more　easily　invents　new　things　than　new　words；　and　we　are　thence　constrained　to　employ　a　multitude　of　improper　and　inadequate　expressions。　　When　several　nations　form　a　permanent　league　and　establish　a　supreme　authority；　which；　although　it　has　not　the　same　influence　over　the　members　of　the　community　as　a　national　government；　acts　upon　each　of　the　Confederate　States　in　a　body；　this　Government；　which　is　so　essentially　different　from　all　others；　is　denominated　a　Federal　one。　　Another　form　of　society　is　afterwards　discovered；　in　which　several　peoples　are　fused　into　one　and　the　same　nation　with　regard　to　certain　common　interests；　although　they　remain　distinct；　or　at　least　only　confederate；　with　regard　to　all　their　other　concerns。　　In　this　case　the　central　power　acts　directly　upon　those　whom　it　governs；　whom　it　rules；　and　whom　it　judges；　in　the　same　manner；　as；　but　in　a　more　limited　circle　than；　a　national　government。　　Here　the　term　Federal　Government　is　clearly　no　longer　applicable　to　a　state　of　things　which　must　be　styled　an　incomplete　national　Government：　a　form　of　government　has　been　found　out　which　is　neither　exactly　national　nor　federal；　but　no　further　progress　has　been　made；　and　the　new　word　which　will　one　day　designate　this　novel　invention　does　not　yet　exist。

The　absence　of　this　new　species　of　confederation　has　been　the　cause　which　has　brought　all　Unions　to　Civil　War；　to　subjection；　or　to　a　stagnant　apathy；　and　the　peoples　which　formed　these　leagues　have　been　either　too　dull　to　discern；　or　too　pusillanimous　to　apply　this　great　remedy。　　The　American　Confederation　perished　by　the　same　defects。

But　the　Confederate　States　of　America　had　been　long　accustomed　to　form　a　portion　of　one　empire　before　they　had　won　their　independence；　they　had　not　contracted　the　habit　of　governing　themselves；　and　their　national　prejudices　had　not　taken　deep　root　in　their　minds。　　Superior　to　the　rest　of　the　world　in　political　knowledge；　and　sharing　that　knowledge　equally　amongst　themselves；　they　were　little　agitated　by　the　passions　which　generally　oppose　the　extension　of　federal　authority　in　a　nation；　and　those　passions　were　checked　by　the　wisdom　of　the　chief　citizens。　　The　Americans　applied　the　remedy　with　prudent　firmness　as　soon　as　they　were　conscious　of　the　evil；　they　amended　their　laws；　and　they　saved　their　country。


Chapter　VIII：　The　Federal　Constitution　…　Part　V

Advantages　Of　The　Federal　System　In　General；　And　Its　Special　Utility　In　America

Happiness　and　freedom　of　small　nations　…　Power　of　great　nations　…　Great　empires　favorable　to　the　growth　of　civil