t to keep them up in the same family。＇
Most certainly it is not for us Frenchmen of the nineteenth century； who daily witness the political and social changes which the law of partition is bringing to pass； to question its influence。 It is perpetually conspicuous in our country； overthrowing the walls of our dwellings and removing the landmarks of our fields。 But although it has produced great effects in France； much still remains for it to do。 Our recollections； opinions； and habits present powerful obstacles to its progress。
In the United States it has nearly completed its work of destruction； and there we can best study its results。 The English laws concerning the transmission of property were abolished in almost all the States at the time of the Revolution。 The law of entail was so modified as not to interrupt the free circulation of property。 *d The first generation having passed away； estates began to be parcelled out； and the change became more and more rapid with the progress of time。 At this moment； after a lapse of a little more than sixty years； the aspect of society is totally altered； the families of the great landed proprietors are almost all commingled with the general mass。 In the State of New York； which formerly contained many of these； there are but two who still keep their heads above the stream； and they must shortly disappear。 The sons of these opulent citizens are become merchants； lawyers； or physicians。 Most of them have lapsed into obscurity。 The last trace of hereditary ranks and distinctions is destroyed … the law of partition has reduced all to one level。 ＇Footnote d： See Appendix； G。＇
I do not mean that there is any deficiency of wealthy individuals in the United States； I know of no country； indeed； where the love of money has taken stronger hold on the affections of men； and where the profounder contempt is expressed for the theory of the permanent equality of property。 But wealth circulates with inconceivable rapidity； and experience shows that it is rare to find two succeeding generations in the full enjoyment of it。
This picture； which may perhaps be thought to be overcharged； still gives a very imperfect idea of what is taking place in the new States of the West and South…west。 At the end of the last century a few bold adventurers began to penetrate into the valleys of the Mississippi； and the mass of the population very soon began to move in that direction： communities unheard of till then were seen to emerge from the wilds： States whose names were not in existence a few years before claimed their place in the American Union； and in the Western settlements we may behold democracy arrived at its utmost extreme。 In these States； founded off…hand； and； as it were； by chance； the inhabitants are but of yesterday。 Scarcely known to one another； the nearest neighbors are ignorant of each other's history。 In this part of the American continent； therefore； the population has not experienced the influence of great names and great wealth； nor even that of the natural aristocracy of knowledge and virtue。 None are there to wield that respectable power which men willingly grant to the remembrance of a life spent in doing good before their eyes。 The new States of the West are already inhabited； but society has no existence among them。 *e
＇Footnote e： This may have been true in 1832； but is not so in 1874； when great cities like Chicago and San Francisco have sprung up in the Western States。 But as yet the Western States exert no powerful influence on American society。 … Translator's Note。＇
It is not only the fortunes of men which are equal in America； even their requirements partake in some degree of the same uniformity。 I do not believe that there is a country in the world where； in proportion to the population； there are so few uninstructed and at the same time so few learned individuals。 Primary instruction is within the reach of everybody； superior instruction is scarcely to be obtained by any。 This is not surprising； it is in fact the necessary consequence of what we have advanced above。 Almost all the Americans are in easy circumstances； and can therefore obtain the first elements of human knowledge。
In America there are comparatively few who are rich enough to live without a profession。 Every profession requires an apprenticeship； which limits the time of instruction to the early years of life。 At fifteen they enter upon their calling； and thus their education ends at the age when ours begins。 Whatever is done afterwards is with a view to some special and lucrative object； a science is taken up as a matter of business； and the only branch of it which is attended to is such as admits of an immediate practical application。 In America most of the rich men were formerly poor； most of those who now enjoy leisure were absorbed in business during their youth； the consequence of which is； that when they might have had a taste for study they had no time for it； and when time is at their disposal they have no longer the inclination。
There is no class； then； in America； in which the taste for intellectual pleasures is transmitted with hereditary fortune and leisure； and by which the labors of the intellect are held in honor。 Accordingly there is an equal want of the desire and the power of application to these objects。
A middle standard is fixed in America for human knowledge。 All approach as near to it as they can； some as they rise； others as they descend。 Of course； an immense multitude of persons are to be found who entertain the same number of ideas on religion； history； science； political economy； legislation； and government。 The gifts of intellect proceed directly from God； and man cannot prevent their unequal distribution。 But in consequence of the state of things which we have here represented it happens that； although the capacities of men are widely different； as the Creator has doubtless intended they should be； they are submitted to the same method of treatment。
In America the aristocratic element has always been feeble from its birth； and if at the present day it is not actually destroyed； it is at any rate so completely disabled that we can scarcely assign to it any degree of influence in the course of affairs。 The democratic principle； on the contrary； has gained so much strength by time； by events； and by legislation； as to have become not only predominant but all…powerful。 There is no family or corporate authority； and it is rare to find even the influence of individual character enjoy any durability。
America； then； exhibits in her social state a most extraordinary phenomenon。 Men are there seen on a greater equality in point of fortune and intellect； or； in other words； more equal in their strength； than in any other country of the world； or in any age of which history has preserved the remembrance。
Political Consequences Of The Social Condition Of The Anglo… Americans
The political consequences of such a social condition as this are easily deducible。 It is impossible to believe that equality will not eventually find its way into the political world as it does everywhere else。 To conceive of men remaining forever unequal upon one single point； yet equal on all others； is impossible； they must come in the end to be equal upon all。 Now I know of only two methods of establishing equality in the political world； every citizen must be put in possession of his rights； or rights must be granted to no one。 For nations which are arrived at the same stage of social existence as the Anglo…Americans； it is therefore very difficult to discover a medium between the sovereignty of all and the absolute power of one man： and it would be vain to deny that the social condition which I have been describing is equally liable to each of these consequences。
There is； in fact； a manly and lawful passion for equality which excites men to wish all to be powerful and honored。 This passion tends to elevate the humble to the rank of the great； but there exists also in the human heart a depraved taste for equality； which impels the weak to attempt to lower the powerful to their own level； and reduces men to prefer equality in slavery to inequality with freedom。 Not that those nations whose social condition is democratic naturally despise liberty； on the contrary； they have an instinctive love of it。 But liberty is not the chief and constant object of their desires； equality is their idol： they make rapid and sudden efforts to obtain liberty； and if they miss their aim resign themselves to their disappointment； but nothing can satisfy them except equality； and rather than lose it they resolve to perish。
On the other hand； in a State where the citizens are nearly on an equality； it becomes difficult for them to preserve their independence against the aggressions of power。 No one among them being strong enough to engage in the struggle with advantage； nothing but a general combination can protect their liberty。 And such a union is not always to be found。
From the same social position； then； nations may derive one or the other of two great political results； these results are extremely different from each other； but they may both proceed from th