nce of intellectual freedom which seemed to him to degrade administration and bring statesmanship； learning； and literature to the level of the lowest； are no longer considered。 The violence of party spirit has been mitigated； and the judgment of the wise is not subordinated to the prejudices of the ignorant。
Other dangers have come。 Equality of conditions no longer exists。 Prophets of evil predict the downfall of democracy； but the student of M。 de Tocqueville will find consolation and encouragement in the reflection that the same spirit which has vanquished the perils of the past； which he foresaw； will be equally prepared for the responsibilities of the present and the future。
The last of the four volumes of M。 de Tocqueville's work upon American institutions appeared in 1840。
In 1838 he was chosen member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences。 In 1839 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies。 He became a member of the French Academy in 1841。 In 1848 he was in the Assembly； and from June 2nd to October 31st he was Minister of Foreign Affairs。 The coup d'etat of December 2； 1851 drove him from the public service。 In 1856 he published 〃The Old Regime and the Revolution。〃 He died at Cannes； April 15； 1859； at the age of fifty…four。
Hon。 John J。 Ingalls
Introductory Chapter
Amongst the novel objects that attracted my attention during my stay in the United States； nothing struck me more forcibly than the general equality of conditions。 I readily discovered the prodigious influence which this primary fact exercises on the whole course of society； by giving a certain direction to public opinion； and a certain tenor to the laws； by imparting new maxims to the governing powers； and peculiar habits to the governed。 I speedily perceived that the influence of this fact extends far beyond the political character and the laws of the country； and that it has no less empire over civil society than over the Government； it creates opinions； engenders sentiments； suggests the ordinary practices of life； and modifies whatever it does not produce。 The more I advanced in the study of American society； the more I perceived that the equality of conditions is the fundamental fact from which all others seem to be derived； and the central point at which all my observations constantly terminated。
I then turned my thoughts to our own hemisphere； where I imagined that I discerned something analogous to the spectacle which the New World presented to me。 I observed that the equality of conditions is daily progressing towards those extreme limits which it seems to have reached in the United States； and that the democracy which governs the American communities appears to be rapidly rising into power in Europe。 I hence conceived the idea of the book which is now before the reader。
It is evident to all alike that a great democratic revolution is going on amongst us； but there are two opinions as to its nature and consequences。 To some it appears to be a novel accident； which as such may still be checked； to others it seems irresistible； because it is the most uniform； the most ancient； and the most permanent tendency which is to be found in history。 Let us recollect the situation of France seven hundred years ago； when the territory was divided amongst a small number of families； who were the owners of the soil and the rulers of the inhabitants； the right of governing descended with the family inheritance from generation to generation； force was the only means by which man could act on man； and landed property was the sole source of power。 Soon； however； the political power of the clergy was founded； and began to exert itself： the clergy opened its ranks to all classes； to the poor and the rich； the villein and the lord； equality penetrated into the Government through the Church； and the being who as a serf must have vegetated in perpetual bondage took his place as a priest in the midst of nobles； and not infrequently above the heads of kings。
The different relations of men became more complicated and more numerous as society gradually became more stable and more civilized。 Thence the want of civil laws was felt； and the order of legal functionaries soon rose from the obscurity of the tribunals and their dusty chambers； to appear at the court of the monarch； by the side of the feudal barons in their ermine and their mail。 Whilst the kings were ruining themselves by their great enterprises； and the nobles exhausting their resources by private wars； the lower orders were enriching themselves by commerce。 The influence of money began to be perceptible in State affairs。 The transactions of business opened a new road to power； and the financier rose to a station of political influence in which he was at once flattered and despised。 Gradually the spread of mental acquirements； and the increasing taste for literature and art； opened chances of success to talent； science became a means of government； intelligence led to social power； and the man of letters took a part in the affairs of the State。 The value attached to the privileges of birth decreased in the exact proportion in which new paths were struck out to advancement。 In the eleventh century nobility was beyond all price； in the thirteenth it might be purchased； it was conferred for the first time in 1270； and equality was thus introduced into the Government by the aristocracy itself。
In the course of these seven hundred years it sometimes happened that in order to resist the authority of the Crown； or to diminish the power of their rivals； the nobles granted a certain share of political rights to the people。 Or； more frequently； the king permitted the lower orders to enjoy a degree of power； with the intention of repressing the aristocracy。 In France the kings have always been the most active and the most constant of levellers。 When they were strong and ambitious they spared no pains to raise the people to the level of the nobles； when they were temperate or weak they allowed the people to rise above themselves。 Some assisted the democracy by their talents； others by their vices。 Louis XI and Louis XIV reduced every rank beneath the throne to the same subjection； Louis XV descended； himself and all his Court； into the dust。
As soon as land was held on any other than a feudal tenure； and personal property began in its turn to confer influence and power； every improvement which was introduced in commerce or manufacture was a fresh element of the equality of conditions。 Henceforward every new discovery； every new want which it engendered； and every new desire which craved satisfaction； was a step towards the universal level。 The taste for luxury； the love of war； the sway of fashion； and the most superficial as well as the deepest passions of the human heart； co…operated to enrich the poor and to impoverish the rich。
From the time when the exercise of the intellect became the source of strength and of wealth； it is impossible not to consider every addition to science； every fresh truth； and every new idea as a germ of power placed within the reach of the people。 Poetry； eloquence； and memory； the grace of wit； the glow of imagination； the depth of thought； and all the gifts which are bestowed by Providence with an equal hand； turned to the advantage of the democracy； and even when they were in the possession of its adversaries they still served its cause by throwing into relief the natural greatness of man； its conquests spread； therefore； with those of civilization and knowledge； and literature became an arsenal where the poorest and the weakest could always find weapons to their hand。
In perusing the pages of our history； we shall scarcely meet with a single great event； in the lapse of seven hundred years； which has not turned to the advantage of equality。 The Crusades and the wars of the English decimated the nobles and divided their possessions； the erection of communities introduced an element of democratic liberty into the bosom of feudal monarchy； the invention of fire…arms equalized the villein and the noble on the field of battle； printing opened the same resources to the minds of all classes； the post was organized so as to bring the same information to the door of the poor man's cottage and to the gate of the palace； and Protestantism proclaimed that all men are alike able to find the road to heaven。 The discovery of America offered a thousand new paths to fortune； and placed riches and power within the reach of the adventurous and the obscure。 If we examine what has happened in France at intervals of fifty years； beginning with the eleventh century； we shall invariably perceive that a twofold revolution has taken place in the state of society。 The noble has gone down on the social ladder； and the roturier has gone up； the one descends as the other rises。 Every half century brings them nearer to each other； and they will very shortly meet。
Nor is this phenomenon at all peculiar to France。 Whithersoever we turn our eyes we shall witness the same continual revolution throughout the whole of Christendom。 The various occurrences of national existence have everywhere turned to the advantage of democracy； all men have aided it by th