ssen the purity of purpose； and consequently the degree of virtue in it； which we do not expect from them in any other kind of speculation。 In these criticisms； persons who are passing judgement on others often reveal their own character： some； in exercising their judicial office； especially upon the dead； seem inclined chiefly to defend the goodness that is related of this or that deed against all injurious charges of insincerity； and ultimately to defend the whole moral worth of the person against the reproach of dissimulation and secret wickedness； others； on the contrary； turn their thoughts more upon attacking this worth by accusation and fault finding。 We cannot always； however； attribute to these latter the intention of arguing away virtue altogether out of all human examples in order to make it an empty name； often； on the contrary； it is only well…meant strictness in determining the true moral import of actions according to an uncompromising law。 Comparison with such a law； instead of with examples； lowers self…conceit in moral matters very much； and not merely teaches humility； but makes every one feel it when he examines himself closely。 Nevertheless； we can for the most part observe； in those who defend the purity of purpose in giving examples that where there is the presumption of uprightness they are anxious to remove even the least spot； lest； if all examples had their truthfulness disputed； and if the purity of all human virtue were denied； it might in the end be regarded as a mere phantom； and so all effort to attain it be made light of as vain affectation and delusive conceit。 I do not know why the educators of youth have not long since made use of this propensity of reason to enter with pleasure upon the most subtle examination of the practical questions that are thrown up； and why they have not； after first laying the foundation of a purely moral catechism； searched through the biographies of ancient and modern times with the view of having at hand instances of the duties laid down； in which； especially by comparison of similar actions under different circumstances； they might exercise the critical judgement of their scholars in remarking their greater or less moral significance。 This is a thing in which they would find that even early youth； which is still unripe for speculation of other kinds； would soon Become very acute and not a little interested； because it feels the progress of its faculty of judgement； and； what is most important； they could hope with confidence that the frequent practice of knowing and approving good conduct in all its purity； and on the other hand of remarking with regret or contempt the least deviation from it； although it may be pursued only as a sport in which children may compete with one another； yet will leave a lasting impression of esteem on the one hand and disgust on the other； and so； by the mere habit of looking on such actions as deserving approval or blame； a good foundation would be laid for uprightness in the future course of life。 Only I wish they would spare them the example of so…called noble （supermeritorious） actions； in which our sentimental books so much abound； and would refer all to duty merely； and to the worth that a man can and must give himself in his own eyes by the consciousness of not having transgressed it； since whatever runs up into empty wishes and longings after inaccessible perfection produces mere heroes of romance； who； while they pique themselves on their feeling for transcendent greatness； release themselves in return from the observance of common and every…day obligations； which then seem to them petty and insignificant。*
*It is quite proper to extol actions that display a great； unselfish； sympathizing mind or humanity。 But； in this case； we must fix attention not so much on the elevation of soul； which is very fleeting and transitory； as on the subjection of the heart to duty； from which a more enduring impression may be expected； because this implies principle （whereas the former only implies ebullitions）。 One need only reflect a little and he will always find a debt that he has by some means incurred towards the human race （even if it were only this； by the inequality of men in the civil constitution； enjoys advantages on account of which others must be the more in want）； which will prevent the thought of duty from being repressed by the self…complacent imagination of merit。
But if it is asked： 〃What； then； is really pure morality； by which as a touchstone we must test the moral significance of every action；〃 then I must admit that it is only philosophers that can make the decision of this question doubtful； for to common sense it has been decided long ago； not indeed by abstract general formulae； but by habitual use； like the distinction between the right and left hand。 We will then point out the criterion of pure virtue in an example first； and； imagining that it is set before a boy； of say ten years old； for his judgement； we will see whether he would necessarily judge so of himself without being guided by his teacher。 Tell him the history of an honest man whom men want to persuade to join the calumniators of an innocent and powerless person （say Anne Boleyn； accused by Henry VIII of England）。 He is offered advantages； great gifts； or high rank； he rejects them。 This will excite mere approbation and applause in the mind of the hearer。 Now begins the threatening of loss。 Amongst these traducers are his best friends； who now renounce his friendship； near kinsfolk； who threaten to disinherit him （he being without fortune）； powerful persons； who can persecute and harass him in all places and circumstances； a prince； who threatens him with loss of freedom； yea； loss of life。 Then to fill the measure of suffering； and that he may feel the pain that only the morally good heart can feel very deeply； let us conceive his family threatened with extreme distress and want； entreating him to yield； conceive himself； though upright； yet with feelings not hard or insensible either to compassion or to his own distress； conceive him； I say； at the moment when he wishes that he had never lived to see the day that exposed him to such unutterable anguish； yet remaining true to his uprightness of purpose； without wavering or even doubting； then will my youthful hearer be raised gradually from mere approval to admiration； from that to amazement； and finally to the greatest veneration； and a lively wish that be himself could be such a man （though certainly not in such circumstances）。 Yet virtue is here worth so much only because it costs so much； not because it brings any profit。 All the admiration； and even the endeavour to resemble this character； rest wholly on the purity of the moral principle； which can only be strikingly shown by removing from the springs of action everything that men may regard as part of happiness。 Morality； then； must have the more power over the human heart the more purely it is exhibited。 Whence it follows that； if the law of morality and the image of holiness and virtue are to exercise any influence at all on our souls； they can do so only so far as they are laid to heart in their purity as motives； unmixed with any view to prosperity； for it is in suffering that they display themselves most nobly。 Now that whose removal strengthens the effect of a moving force must have been a hindrance； consequently every admixture of motives taken from our own happiness is a hindrance to the influence of the moral law on the heart。 I affirm further that even in that admired action； if the motive from which it was done was a high regard for duty； then it is just this respect for the law that has the greatest influence on the mind of the spectator； not any pretension to a supposed inward greatness of mind or noble meritorious sentiments； consequently duty； not merit； must have not only the most definite； but； when it is represented in the true light of its inviolability； the most penetrating； influence on the mind。 It is more necessary than ever to direct attention to this method in our times； when men hope to produce more effect on the mind with soft； tender feelings； or high…flown； puffing…up pretensions； which rather wither the heart than strengthen it； than by a plain and earnest representation of duty； which is more suited to human imperfection and to progress in goodness。 To set before children； as a pattern； actions that are called noble； magnanimous； meritorious； with the notion of captivating them by infusing enthusiasm for such actions； is to defeat our end。 For as they are still so backward in the observance of the commonest duty； and even in the correct estimation of it； this means simply to make them fantastical romancers betimes。 But； even with the instructed and experienced part of mankind； this supposed spring has； if not an injurious； at least no genuine； moral effect on the heart； which； however； is what it was desired to produce。 All feelings； especially those that are to produce unwonted exertions； must accomplish their effect at the moment they are at their height and before the calm down； otherwise they effect nothing； for as there was nothing to strengthen the heart； but only to excite it； it naturally returns to it